Primary and Secondary Education in Myanmar 167
Myanmar? Can decentralization be effective in addressing the deep-seated
problems in the Myanmar education sector? To explore answers to these
questions, we have examined relationships within the formal education
system in the Ministry of Education across various levels of government,
from the national down to the state or region, and below that to the district
and township. We describe the provision of education starting from the
colonial era in the late nineteenth century through to the present. We have
also reviewed some of the non-state actors involved in the provision of
education, especially as their involvement throws into relief challenges that
the formal education system faces. We then present our findings, which
suggest that of this writing (2014), decentralization, to the extent that is
has happened at all, is limited. The institutional culture of the Ministry
of Education, together with societal attitudes towards education and
perceptions of the proper roles of students, teachers, and Ministry staff,
all limit decentralization.
METHODOLOGY
We have based our findings on a literature review and on interviews with
key participants and decision-makers in two regions, Mon State and Yangon
Region. The purpose of this review and interviews was to gauge how people
involved with the provision of education understand “decentralization”,
what decisions and responsibilities have been handed down from higher
to lower levels of administration, and how they understand their own role
in the process. We have examined the formal arrangements between the
central Ministry of Education and the various states and regions providing
education; and arrangements between the centre and the states for the
management of education, for example, budgeting, human resources,
curriculum development, policy frameworks, and overall decision-making
authority.^2 At the same time, our research gave insight into what we have
called the institutional culture or “ethos” of education. While our focus
was primarily on the Ministry of Education, it appears that this ethos
reflects views on society more widely.
We carried out twelve interviews with members of the Ministry of
Education and leaders of the Mon National Education Committee, an
“ethnic” education department active largely in ceasefire areas of Lower
Myanmar.^3 We chose Yangon Region and Mon State as our research sites
for breadth of comparison. Mon State has a long history of armed conflict