Primary and Secondary Education in Myanmar 169
1962, the political culture of government has been top-down, perhaps
building upon earlier authoritarian practices that had been in place before
the British began to take over the country in the early nineteenth century.
This top-down political culture has done little to foster accountability,
responsiveness to local needs, or flexibility. It has often been difficult for
information to flow upwards. Top-level decision-makers tended to make
pronouncements often based on the ideology or short-term agendas.
Officials and bureaucrats lower down carry out orders, even if they do
not always have the ability to do so. Proper funding for projects has often
not been provided. Despite the fact that a majority in the bureaucracy take
pride in their work and have the interests — however understood — of
the nation at heart, governance is not efficient. The degree of openness and
flexibility vary widely among ministries. Personal relationships are central
to the exercise of power, so that patronage ties between superiors and
inferiors are more important than formal procedures. In quotidian terms,
this dynamic means that officials usually do not do anything unless the
action is a completely routine matter for which there is a clear precedent,
or unless an immediate superior directs them to do so.^6
Both as researchers and as long-term residents who have interacted
with Myanmar officialdom in various capacities, we have observed that
many throughout the administration want there to be change in how
things are done. Yet the hierarchical nature of social relations and power
structures has had a profound influence on the practices of governance.
Governance in Education
Our research focuses largely on, but is not wholly limited to, the Ministry
of Education, which is the second largest department in the government of
Myanmar after the military. It has the second largest number of personnel,
and an extensive geographic reach. While the Ministry of Education is
the largest education provider, other ministries and departments are
also involved with providing education, albeit with more specialized
purviews. These include the Department of Education Planning and
Training, the Ministry of Border Areas, the Ministry of Religious Affairs,
under which fall Buddhist monastic schools, and the Ministry of Trade
for private schools.
Planning, budgeting and decision-making are highly centralized in the
Ministry of Education. The administrative divisions relevant to primary and