86 Mukherjee, Singh, Fernandez-Chung and Marimuthu
strong middle class among Bumiputras. Implementation of NEP policies
has continued after the twenty-year period until the present time under
other nomenclature such as the New Development Policy.
In 2010, the New Economic Model (NEM 2010) pledged to revise
and transform affirmative action policies, promising to uplift the quality
of life of the low-income 40 per cent, regardless of ethnicity, in moving
towards a high-income, inclusive and sustainable economy. The document
identified Malaysia’s economic structural woes with affirmative action
policies, which had proved to be inefficient, unjust and too entrenched
in the system to be mended. The lack of talented and qualified human
resources was highlighted, noting large numbers of well-qualified, non-
Bumiputra Malaysians leaving for non-discriminatory, more financially
and socially attractive environments in developed countries. Major policy
initiatives have not followed the presentation of the NEM and in fact the
NEM goal of inclusiveness has been diluted. In less than two years, the
Prime Minister announced on 14 September 2013, the Bumiputra Economic
Empowerment Plan (BEEP), promising a new RM31 billion package of
support to Bumiputras with human capital growth as one of the focal areas.
There was no reference to the nation’s need to invest in talent wherever
the source, a significant departure from the recommendations in the NEM.
Underlying higher education policymaking is Malaysia’s Vision 2020’s
goal of becoming a developed, high-income economy by 2020 with a per
capita gross national income (GNI) of US$15,000, which is above the World
Bank’s definition of US$12,745 (RM40,800) as high income. The current
per capita GNI is US$10,060 and, anticipating investment to reach RM444
billion by 2020, the plan is to create 3.3 million jobs by the target year.
The Prime Minister’s Department states that investment currently stands
at RM219.3 billion and economic growth in Malaysia is on track (Starbiz
2014), a statement supported by the World Bank (World Bank 2014).
ACCESS TO HIGHER EDUCATION
Significant improvement in access to all education levels took place in
Malaysia between 1985 and 2008, particularly at the higher education level.
Higher education participation, especially among ethnic groups, women,
and those from less developed geographical regions, had increased in step
with the growing economy. While enrolments in primary level education
had grown modestly at an annual rate of 1.9 per cent and at secondary