. mudrā, mantra, mandala 81
Mandala^21
As in the case of mantra the actual origin of ritual diagrams in Indian
religion undoubtedly have a long history and pre-date Buddhism.
However, cosmic diagrams made in the form of geometric matrices
with each segment in the grid indicating a holy “field” or “sphere”
inhabited by a divinity—a virtual “map” of the imagined cosmic
order— did not find their place in Buddhism until quite late in the
history of Mahāyāna Buddhism. The Buddhist cave-temples of Kan-
heri and at Ellora in the Deccan contain what may be the earliest
extant examples of rudimentary mandalas in the form of geometric
matrices containing Buddhist divinities.^22 Davidson has argued that
the distinctive use of mandalas in esoteric Buddhism is a product of
the loss of patronage in the context of medieval sāmanta feudalism
and the growing importance of the imperial metaphors of the “supreme
overlord” (rājādirāja) or “universal ruler” (cakravartin).^23
In the context of Chinese Buddhism, the use of mandalas (mantuoluo
) as iconic, cosmo-religious charts goes back to the sixth cen-
tury. The early sources do not use the term mantuoluo, (or various
other transliterations) but use the word “tan ,” i.e. “altar” or “plat-
form.” From the context in which the term occurs, however, it is clear
that we are dealing with a special diagram arranged or placed on an
altar. Diagrams of this kind were normally drawn on paper or cloth,
sometimes they consisted of rudimentary, graphic mandalas on which
were placed images of various sorts according to the regulations for
the rite to be performed.^24
(^21) The amount of scholarshsip on mandala, especially with regard to mandalas in
Japanese esoteric Buddhism, seems to grow at an exponential rate. Classic works are
by Tajima 1936, 1959, Toganoo 1982b. Chandra 1971 provides a summary of classical
Japanese scholarship. ten Grotenhuis 1999, 1–11 provides a lucid introduction and
her notes cover the major resources in English and Japanese. A collection of essays
on mandala can be found in the Journal of the International Buddhist Studies Associa-
tion 22 , 19.2, 1996.
See Malandra 1993. Malandra’s discussion is relatively spare on historical or doc-
trinal background of the square, mandala-like diagrams in Ellora. Nevertheless, in a
few instances, such as in caves no. 6 (early seventh century) and no. 12 (early eighth
century) we are obviously dealing with some form of early mandalas. For Malandra’s
discussion of the dating see Malandra 1993, 23–90.
(^23) Davidson 2002a, 113–131.
(^24) Many such mandala-diagrams have survived, in particular among the hoard of
manuscripts in the sealed chamber of cave 17 at Mogao. For an example see, Tokyo
National Museum’s 1996 exhibition catalogue Shirukurodo dai bijutsu ten [English
subtitle: Grand Exhibition of Silk Road Buddhist Art], 219, pl. 231.