. central divinities 115
Color plate 4. The group of Ten Vidyārājas at Dafowan. Mt. Baoding, Dazu,
Sichuan, thirteenth century. Photo by author.
material translated into Chinese, these divinities often appear as per-
sonified spells or dhāraṇīs. It is interesting to note that the iconic
appearance of these Hindu gods and spirits in the form of sculptures
and wall paintings follows closely translations of early Esoteric Bud-
dhist texts from the fifth–sixth centuries. A work such as the Tuoluoni
zaji (Miscellaneous Collection of Dhāran ̣īs)^75 features
many spells associated with Hindu gods cast in the role of protectors
of the buddhadharma. Many of the assimilated Hindu deities obvi-
ously underwent considerable transformation in the context of Eso-
teric Buddhism, and many became role models and templates for the
creation of new Buddhist divinities. This is especially pronounced in
the development of the wrathful deities populating the Esoteric Bud-
dhist pantheon.^76
(^75) T. 1336.21:580c–637c.
(^76) For a excellent study of these deities in the period after the eighth century, see
Linrothe 1999.