116 henrik h. sørensen
Although the cult of Vaiśravaṇa and the Four Heavenly Kings is
not directly associated with Esoteric Buddhism, that which developed
around Vaiśravaṇa, King of the North, was chiefly practiced within an
Esoteric Buddhist context (figure 11).^77 The Vaiśravaṇa cult attained
great prominence during the mid- to late Tang, evident both in the
surviving paintings from Dunhuang and in numerous sculptures
found at many sites scattered throughout Sichuan.
Śiva-Maheśvara is one of the most important Hindu gods to be
assimilated into the Buddhist pantheon.^78 In his wrathful forms he ranks
among the primary wrathful protectors and continued to be of primary
importance in the later Tantric Buddhist tradition as a role model for yogis
and siddhas. His cult was introduced to China during the Nanbeichao
period and related rituals can be found in the important Tuoluoni
zaji.^79 Primary scriptures include the ritual texts Moxishouluo tian fayao^
(Essential Methods of the God Maheśvara)^80 and the
Moxishouluo dazizai tianwang shentong huasheng jiyi tiannü niansong fa
(Methods for Invok-
ing Maheśvara, the Great Self-Existing King’s Magical Transformation
of Śṛīdevī).^81 Mahākala, Yamāntaka (Mahābhairava), and other wrathful
deities inhabiting the Esoteric Buddhist pantheon are ultimately derived
from the various martial forms of Śiva.
Mahākāla, the Black Lord, is originally a manifestation of Śiva.^82 He
sometimes appears under the name Kapila. This many-armed, multi-
headed demon-king is one of the most popular wrathful protectors
in Esoteric Buddhism, though the popularity of his cult did not come
about until the second half of the Tang with the advent of Zhenyan
Buddhism (figure 12).
His main scripture is the ritual text Da Heitian shen fa
(Methods of the Great Dark God).^83 He also appears among the
(^77) This development is represented by works such as T. 1247, T. 1248, and T.
1250.
(^78) For the leading article on this important Esoteric Buddhist divinity, including a
detailed discussion of the related iconography, see Iyanaga 1983.
(^79) T. 1336.
(^80) T. 1279.
(^81) T. 1280.
(^82) See the detailed study by Iyanaga 1994.
(^83) T. 1287.