. central divinities 121
Shensha , King of Ghosts.^93 One of the earliest occurrences of
Shensha in the Chinese sources is in the apocryphal Moniluotan jing
(Maniratna Scripture), in which he is described simply
as a demon (gui ).^94 Shensha was later included among the sixteen
protector spirits of the Māhāprajñāpāramitā sūtra, a group of demon-
generals that is said to eliminate all kinds of problems.^95 He is some-
times considered a transformation of Avalokiteśvara. His cult gained
in popularity after being reintroduced by Xuanzang upon his return
from India in the 660s C.E.^96 Later in the Tang, the Shensha cult was
popularized by Amoghavajra (figure 14).^97
Examples of the standard iconography relating to his cult from the
Tang were later transmitted to Japan during the Heian period. Sculp-
tural examples are known from Dazu in Sichuan dating from the Five
Dynasties period on.
Vināyaka (Gaṇapati, Gaṇeśa), the elephant-headed son of Śiva. The
earliest known depiction of this important Esoteric Buddhist god in
China is in a wall painting in cave no. 285 in the Mogao caves at
Dunhuang. Here he has the role of Dharma protector, similar to that
accorded the Four Heavenly Kings.^98 Later, during the Tang, Vināyaka
occurs as a major Esoteric Buddhist divinity that can bestow siddhi or
supernatural powers (figure 15).^99
At the same time, he can also be found in representations of the
Thousand-armed Avalokiteśvara, depicted as a minor spirit together
with the boar-headed Cāmuṇḍā, representing obstructive and harm-
ful forces. Iconographic representations of this type, of which many
examples can be seen in the Dunhuang banner paintings, show the
pair as under the control of the vidyārājas Ucchusma and Kuṇ ̣ḍalī.^100
(^93) Cf. MDJ, vol. 3, pp. 1280c–1b.
(^94) Cf. T. 1393.21:910c.
(^95) Cf. T. 1293.
(^96) See T. 2163.55:1070c.
(^97) Cf. Shensha dajiang yigui (Ritual Proceedings for the Great
general Shensha), 98 T. 1291.21:376b–77a.
Smet 1988. See also Sørensen, “Esoteric Buddhist Art up to the Tang,” in this
volume. 99
Cf. T. 1269, T. 1270 etc. See also Sørensen, “Esoteric Buddhism and Magic in
China,” in this volume. For additional information on Vīnāyaka icons and iconogra-
phy, see Sanford 1991b, and Kabanoff 1994.
(^100) Cf. Zhongguo bihua quanji bianji weiyuanhui, ed. 1989, pls. 198–99.