. central divinities 129
dhism it is common for higher divinities, such as buddhas or bodhisat-
tvas, to be in control of these seven minor god-officials.
The Gods of the Twenty-eight Constellations are minor yet impor-
tant gods, both positive and malignant forces, whose influence is
connected with the moon’s phases. In the forms that have been trans-
mitted to the present, they are portrayed in a curious mix of Indian
(or non-Chinese) and Chinese imagery.^121 These astral gods/spirits do
not have scriptures of their own but are discussed (and depicted) in
Yixing’s Qiyao xingchen biexing fa.
The Esoteric Buddhist Pantheon under the Yuan and Ming
During the Yuan and Ming, the Chinese Buddhist pantheon was trans-
formed and expanded under the influence of Xixia and Tibetan
Buddhist art. In addition to the introduction and adaptation of the
iconographical vocabulary of traditional Indo-Tibetan Buddhism, Chi-
nese Buddhist artists began to modify and adapt these new influences
to fit their own cultural needs. In practice this meant that a variety of
new images were created, some with a completely new iconography,
others with modified forms and attributes, as well as a large number of
hybrid forms reflecting cultural compromise between the indigenous
pantheon of Esoteric Buddhism and the new imported divinities.
During the Ming many sets of paintings were created to serve as
icons for the Shuilu rituals that were becoming increasingly
popular all over China.^122 Several of these sets of paintings, usually
thirty-five pieces to a set (in some cases fewer or more), have survived
in more or less complete state. The finest is a set painted for the court
of the Yongle Emperor (r. 1403–1424).^123 The Shuilu paintings feature
what was then seen as the entire Budhist pantheon—both exoteric and
esoteric divinities—and includes major iconic topics of Esoteric Bud-
dhism, such as the five dhyāni buddhas as part of a group of nine
buddhas,^124 the Ten Vidyārājas,^125 the Eightfold Group of Gods and
(^121) Cf. Little, Eichman, et al. 2000, 132–137. See also T. 1309.21:452a–57a.
(^122) Cf. Stevenson 2001.
(^123) These are now part of the collection of the Museé Guimet in Paris. See Gyss-
Vermande 1988. 124
Cf. Shanxisheng Bowuguan, comp. 1988, pls. 1–9.
(^125) Shanxisheng Bowuguan, comp. 1988, pls. 21–31.