166 henrik h. sørensen
(T. 1080–83).^31 Taken altogether, these sūtras feature a fully developed
form of Esoteric Buddhism complete with integrated rituals, including
practices involving homa offering, mudrās, dhāraṇī/spells, mandalas,
mahākrodhas, and a corresponding iconography—in short, all the ele-
ments that normally define full-fledged Esoteric Buddhism.
Less than two decades after the appearance of Bodhiruci’s long ver-
sion of the Amoghapāśa sūtra (T. 1092), arguably one of the most
complex and detailed Esoteric Buddhist scriptures in Chinese trans-
lation, Śubhākarasiṃha arrived in Chang’an, carrying with him the
Mahāvairocana sūtra and the teachings of the Great Yoga (mahāyoga).
This new dispersion of Esoteric Buddhist texts and ritual lore heralded
the beginning of a new era.^32
In Defense of “Esoteric Buddhism”
Let me now return to the question of the use of the term “Esoteric
Buddhism” and, by extension, the use of the concept of “secret” and
“secrecy” (mi ) in Chinese Buddhism. I contend that what is primar-
ily indicated by the term is its secret or hidden aspects. In other words,
spell arts and the entire range of magico-religious beliefs and practices
that constitute the phenomena of Esoteric Buddhism were generally
not in the public domain but were, for the most part, handed down
from master to disciple and were beyond the reach of the uninitiated.^33
This transmission denied outsiders knowledge of ritual technicalities
and hid certain modes of behavior deemed unsuitable for the public
eye, such as necromancy, practices related to sexuality, and even trea-
sure hunting. After all, many of the Esoteric Buddhist rituals, includ-
ing exorcism, medium manipulation (āveśa), and putting spells on
other people, involved elements of violent intent and sorcery.
In addition to mi, a word that is actually rarely found alone in Chi-
nese texts associated with esoteric Mahāyāna and Esoteric Buddhism,
we also find bi which, in the texts that have been surveyed here, has
(^31) See Aptilon, ”Goddess Genealogy,” this volume.
(^32) Tantric Buddhism of the Indo-Tibetan varietiy was introduced to those parts of
Central Asia and Western China controlled by the Tibetans during the final decades
of the eighth century. However, as its influence on Chinese Buddhism per se was very
limited, I do not consider it of real relevance to this discussion. For additional infor-
mation on this development, see Eastman 1983. For the Song Dynasty translations of
tantras see Orzech, “Esoteric Buddhism in the Song,” in this volume.
(^33) This despite the ostensibly ”public” display of dhāraṇīs on dhāraṇī pillars.