. the apocrypha and esoteric buddhism in china 185
mentioned above is interesting for a variety of reasons, as documented
by Michel Strickman.^14 However, it must not be overlooked that this
apocryphal work in effect consists of several separate texts, some of
which would appear to be if not authentic Indian works, at least based
on or informed by such. This includes the scriptures constituting the
eighth chapter, the Maṇiratna sūtra,^15 and the twelfth chapter, which
is closely modeled around the Bhaiṣajyaguru sūtra.^16 Nevertheless, vir-
tually all the individual scriptures making up the Guanding jing are
either hybrid or outright Chinese constructs one way or the other.
The Zhou shi qibing jing, as mentioned above, is a spell scripture,
written in a mixture of pseudo-Sanskrit and proper Chinese in the
form of an invocation to the Three Jewels and other buddhas as well
as Buddhist followers. The spell is followed by a lengthy prayer in Chi-
nese to the buddhas of the ten directions, which is not found in the
shorter Taishō version. There is no obvious connection between the
stated purpose of the spell— protection against the arising of unwhole-
some qi , i.e. pneuma—and the adoration of the Three Jewels and
the other buddhas.^17
The Foshuo quewen huangshen zhou jing, though it is modeled after
an Indian spell scripture, is obviously a Chinese composition. The spell
it features is not of Indian origin and neither is a list of seven disease-
causing demons it contains. Moreover it also refers to evil qi.
The Pseudo-Śūraṅgama Sūtra is another matter.^18 First, it was written
to resemble an authentic Indian Buddhist scripture, i.e., the author(s)
went to great pains to compose a text that followed rather faithfully the
literary norms of a traditional Indian Mahāyāna sūtra. Second, a clear-
cut discourse runs through it. Third, it features fairly uniform doctrinal
positions that underlie the entire text.^19 Fourth, it teaches a series of
well-defined practices, including the important spell, and instructions
on setting up a ritual space. Although the Pseudo-Śūraṅgama has been
(^14) Strickmann 1990, 75–118.
(^15) T. 1331.21, pp. 517c–21a.
(^16) T. 1331.21:532b–36b.
(^17) The scripture mentioned in the Liang Catalogue under the title Zhoushi qi
(Spell [to be Used] at the Time of Qi) may in all likelihood have been identical with
that found here. Cf. Chu sanzang ji, p. 179.
(^18) T. 945. Controversy has surrounded this important apocryphal scripture since
its creation during the mid-Tang. For a recent discussion with ample references, see
Benn (forthcoming). 19
It may be argued here that the special piety and stress on prohibitions featured
in the scripture are somewhat excessive, indicating a cultural milieu closer to medieval
China than India.