. the apocrypha and esoteric buddhism in china 191
it a meditation practice consisting of visualizing the forty-two letters
of the Sanskrit alphabet. The latter text, which is ideologically derived
from the former, focuses its discourse on the instantaneous entrance
into the One Vehicle of Vairocana by contemplating his dharma body.
Moreover, it places the Sanskrit characters for visualization in a wheel
shape. While the former work was most likely authored by Amogha-
vajra, the latter is of unknown but clearly Chinese authorship.
Talismanic Charts, Seals, and Esoteric Buddhist Apocrypha
It has now become generally acknowledged that Daoism played a con-
siderable role in the process through which Buddhism became a truly
Chinese religion. Incidentally, it is in connection with the formation
and development of Esoteric Buddhism in China that the Daoist influ-
ence is most pronounced, and therefore easiest to discern.^39 Among
the Daoist practices that Buddhist ritual specialists took over from
early on was the lore of the “heavenly writ (tianwen ),” in par-
ticular the use of talismanic charts and talismanic seals in the form
of amulets.^40 The use of protective amulets is also known from the
context of Mahāyāna Buddhism in India, but in a markedly different
manner from the developments that took place in China.^41
The use of talismans, i.e., diagrams of power, by Buddhists in China
may have begun as early as the beginning of the fourth century.^42 The
Buddhists’ borrowing of this practice was probably stimulated by its
popularity and widespread use among people from all walks of life in
Chinese society, and its prevalence in China can unproblematically
(^39) For a number of studies on this influence, see the various books and articles by
the Taiwanese scholar Xiao Dengfu 1991, 1992, 1994. For a review of the latter
text, Xiao’s most important work, which by and large includes his earlier studies, see
Sōrensen 1995b. Although Xiao’s work is somewhat tendentious, in that he considers
himself a sort of “defender” of Daoism against the prejudices of Buddhist scholars, his
systematic “diggings” in the Esoteric Buddhist corpus of texts preserved in Chinese do
yield a wealth of interesting insights and useful references.
(^40) See Strickmann, 2002, pp. 123–93, and Robson, “Talismans in Chinese Esoteric
Buddhism,” in this volume.
(^41) As documented in various Esoteric Buddhist works of Indian origin, such as the
Mahāpratisarā-dhāraṇī sūtra (T. 1154) etc., images and amulets were worn on the
person as protection. However, the concept of ritual sealing with the concrete use of
a seal have to my knowledge not been documented anywhere. The talismans used by
Indian Buddhists were more in the form of a three-dimensional object, such as an
image or holy symbol.
(^42) Strickmann 2002, 140–43.