. esoteric buddhism and magic in china 199
evident that the same spell or mantra appears in different versions,^5
sometimes in abbreviated or changed form.^6 Likewise, entire ritual
procedures were rarely followed to the word, but were in many cases
abbreviated, simplified, reformed, and even restructured. Hence, the
hermeneutical logic governing the Esoteric Buddhist quest for magi-
cal success through ritual performance was constantly being subverted
through ritual modifications by the practitioners themselves. There
were a number of reasons for the existence of this relative “freedom”
as regards the ritual process, including issues such as economy, locale,
availability of prescribed ritual objects such as offerings, and whether
a given ritual was a communal one or an individual matter. In fact, in
many cases the Esoteric scriptures themselves contain statements to
the effect that strict adherence to the ritual proceedings are not always
necessary and may be dispensed with according to circumstances. The
increasing individualization of Esoteric Buddhist ritual, or what may
be termed the “occasionalistic” approach to ritual practice,^7 can best be
observed in the relevant manuscripts from Dunhuang.^8 In this material
we find many orthodox rituals (i.e., rites that occur in canonical texts)
that have undergone substantial modification and alteration. Further,
there are many variant texts of the “same” ritual, and these may repre-
sent different stages in the process of textual and ritual transformation
within the context of Esoteric Buddhism.^9 This means that the laws
governing the practice of magic in Esoteric Buddhism were rarely fol-
lowed to the word. On the contrary, the lore surrounding the use of
magic was rather loosely structured and clearly open to interpretation.
(^5) This can be readily observed when comparing the various versions of the
Mahāmāyūrīvidyārājñī sūtra and its derived texts. See Sørensen 2006b.
(^6) Such as the important spell from the Pseudo-Śuraṅgama Sutra (T. 945), which
also occurs in abbreviated versions in later ritual texts. Cf. Sørensen, “Esoteric Bud-
dhism under the Koryŏ (918–1392),” in this volume. 7
It is an open question to what extent this seemingly loose or casual adherence
to ritual protocol should be interpreted as an expression of the application of upāya
(fangbian ), that is, favoring practicality over following the exact wording of a
given ritual text. It would appear, however, that the practical aspect of ritual perfor-
mance was a major factor in determining to what extent the official ritual procedure
was performed. 8
Cf. Dunhuang mizong wenxian jicheng Lin and Shen 2000a. Although far from
complete, this excellent collection provides immediate access to the bulk of the rel-
evant material.
(^9) Cf. Sørensen 1993b. This problem of variations in ritual texts from Dunhuang also
involves a discussion of inter-textuality and textual identity, issues that are beyond the
province of this brief essay.