22. ESOTERIC BUDDHIST ART UP TO THE TANG
Henrik H. SørensenAlthough we are here primarily concerned with Buddhist art in China
from the perspective of Esoteric Buddhism, it is necessary to under-
stand the cultural context from which it grew. Strictly speaking, there
are almost no Buddhist images in China that may unerringly be iden-
tified as belonging to Esoteric Buddhism before the mid-seventh cen-
tury. Nevertheless, it must be understood that Esoteric Buddhist art in
China as a cultural and religious phenomena did not happen suddenly,
but that it came about as part of a longer and more complex process
that not only involved imports from India and Central Asia, but also
involved interaction with the local culture.
A large army of protectors, demon-generals, and ghostly beings
inhabit the pantheon of mature Esoteric Buddhism in East Asia. Their
presence in Chinese Buddhist iconography began to be felt during
the sixth to seventh centuries, but how was the situation prior to that
time? Various protectors including the celebrated lokapālas (the Four
Heavenly Kings of the cardinal directions) and a motley assortment
of door gods (dvārapālas), in Chinese often referred to as “strong
vajra-beings” (jin’gang lishi ), occur very early in the his-
tory of Buddhism and were part of the Indian tradition the Chinese
inherited.
The pre-Buddhist Chinese were significantly engaged in specula-
tions about demonology and exorcism, although the roles and exact
function of spirits were not always very clearly defined. In any case,
a certain ambivalence as regards their exact nature would appear to
have been the norm. In other words, these non-human beings were
sometimes imagined as working for the protection and well being of
humans, but in most cases not. They were generally feared, and pro-
tection against perceived depredations was diligently sought.
Since its early history, Buddhism had actively been dealing with
spirits, demons, and ghosts, and had worked out a compromise to the
effect that it encompassed and accommodated the non-human beings
in its growing pantheon of benevolent, lesser beings. Usually these
adopted spirits, including the domesticated Hindu gods that appear