. esoteric buddhism in the tang 269
systems of esoteric Buddhism. The scripture delineates four “fami-
lies”: “Buddha,” in which the dominant place goes to the Buddhosṇ̣īsa; ̣
“Bodhisattva,” dominated by forms of Avalokiteśvara; “Vajra,” focus-
ing on Vajragarbha, Vajrāmṛtakuṇḍali, and Ucchusma; and “Devas,” ̣
whose number includes Mārīcī as well as astral and meteorological
deities. It is interesting to note that each category includes female
deities.
Perhaps most significant is the presentation of a coherent system
of practice surrounding the Ekāksara-uṣ ṇ̣īsa-cakravartin (Yizi Foding ̣
lun wang ) in the first three and the last chapters.^22
Although the text is clearly based in the dhāraṇī genre, these chapters
present a full esoteric system integrating abhiṣeka, homa, mantra, and
so on in the creation of a mandala/altar and the investiture of a disci-
ple with royal symbols. In contrast to typical dhāraṇī texts, the disciple
is enjoined here to utmost secrecy (T. 901.18:795a2–14). Davidson has
argued that the Tuoluoni ji jing is thus the earliest surviving work with
all of the characteristics of mature esoteric Buddhism.^23 It was eclipsed
by the development of the Vajraśekhara/Vajroṣṇīṣa tradition (Jin’gang
ding ) that was imported to China early in the next century by
Vajrabodhi and Amoghavajra.^24
Manicintana
Manicintana, Bodhiruci, and Yijing were active in decidedly different
circumstances from those of Atikūta. Arriving at the height of Empress ̣
Wu’s power, they played a significant role in the legiti-
mization of her regime.^25 Manicintana arrived in Loyang in 693 and
(^22) Also designated Usṇ̣īṣa, Buddhosṇ̣īsa, or Tathāgatauṣ ̣ṇīsa. See Davidson forth-̣
coming b, 5–6. Davidson presents a list of the chapters with hypothetical Sanskrit
reconstruction on pp. 16–17, though, as he notes, the list is less helpful than it might
seem, as some sections of the scripture have contents not obvious from the chapter
titles (p. 4). It is worth noting however, that we do find rites to Hayagrīva, Ucchuṣma,
Vajrāmṛtakuṇḍali, and others. Among other texts connected with this tradition are T.
951 and 23 T. 952 by Bodhiruci.
Davidson forthcoming b, 5, 11. As Davidson notes, the only possible competitor
to this early system is that of the Amoghapāśa system. See below. 24
The name of this system is commonly rendered as Vajraśekhara, though there is
indication that it might be better understood as Vajrosṇ̣īṣa. See Davidson forthcoming
b, 6, n. 14; and Giebel 1995, 109.
(^25) Empress Wu abolished the Tang dynasty and set up her own Zhou dynasty
between 690 and 705. She legitimated her rule by claiming to be the “Golden-wheel
Cakravartin” and through prophecies of a female incarnation of Bodhisattva Maitreya