. esoteric buddhism in the tang 275
Monasteries, and the development of the Jin’ge Monastery
complex on Mount Wutai) but also in national and international pres-
tige.^49 These monasteries quickly became centers for the training of
pilgrims from Korea, Japan, and elsewhere.
Despite glowing reports of the reception of Śubhākarasiṃha, Vajra-
bodhi, and Amoghavajra in Buddhist sources, imperial patronage was
cautious, restrained, and occasionally hostile, especially under the
Daoist-leaning Emperor Xuanzong (r. 712–756).^50 This was not new.
Indeed, at least since the time of Tanyao (active mid-fifth cen-
tury) highly educated monks quickly became servants of the state, and
their movements and activities were surveyed and controlled for its
own purposes.^51 On arrival at court, foreign monks were interviewed
and placed as “guests” in government monasteries where they could be
debriefed about their travels and put to work in the service of the state.
They rendered texts with teams of translators, and also performed ritu-
als to augment state policy, insure seasonable rain, repel invasion and
put down uprisings, and help promote the well-being of the imperial
family and its ancestors.
Thus, what was propagated was to a considerable degree shaped
not only by religious ideology but also by imperial needs and ambi-
tions. Recent research by Antonino Forte has underscored the degree
to which this was true under the regime of Empress Wu, as monks
like Bodhiruci and Manicintana authorized translations favorable to
Wu Zhao’s political and religious agendas.^52 As Osabe (1971b), Orzech
(1998) and Lehnert have noted, while Amoghavajra privileged the
STTS, his translation and ritual activity were shaped in large part by
state interests.^53
(^49) For the role of these monasteries see Chen, “Esoteric Buddhism and Monastic
Institutions,” in this volume. 50
Zanning’s account of Xuanzong’s reception of Śubhākarasiṃha is a good exam-
ple of this. See the Song gaoseng zhuan, T. 2061. 50:715b7–13. A translation is available
in Chou 1945, 263–65. A more restrained and formal picture of the reception is found
in Zhisheng’s 51 Kaiyuan shijiao lu, T. 2154.55:572a5–26.
Tanyao was appointed the official government leader of the sangha under
Emperor Wencheng (r. 452–456) during the Northern Wei dynasty (424–533). For
Tanyao, see Sargent 1957.
(^52) Forte 1976, 1984, 2002.
(^53) See Lehnert, “Amoghavajra: His Role in and Influence on the Development of
Buddhism,” in this volume.