. esoteric buddhism and the tantras in east asia 17
- Pantheon
The esoteric Buddhist pantheon may be initially referenced to the
deities of the mandalas, some major figures such as Mahāvairocana,
and others who are members of the retinues, found perhaps only in
the mandalas and rituals that reference these retinues. One also finds
Vedic and Brahmanic deities, such as Indra (Yintuoluo ) and
Brahma (Fantian ). Some of these appear in Buddhist garb, or
with their gender reversed—usually from female to male. Other Vedic
and Brahmanic deities are present as subsidiary functionaries such as
Vayu (Fengtian ) or Candra (Yuetian ), etc.^32
Various deities from other East Asian religious traditions have also
been integrated into the esoteric Buddhist pantheon. In some Shingon
rituals for example, Amaterasu, the ancestral sun goddess associated
with Shintō is referenced. One also finds rituals for the Northern Dip-
per , an asterism only venerated in Chinese tradition, and not
found in Indic Buddhism.^33 - Canon
As in other categories discussed here, there are items in the canon
with different degrees of identification with esoteric Buddhism.
There are “core” texts, e.g., Mahāvairocanābhisaṃbodhi (MVS) and
Sarvatathāgatatattvasaṃgraha (STTS), as well as “ancillary” texts, e.g.,
the Avataṃsaka sūtra. There are also key commentaries composed in East
Asia, such as Yixing’s commentary on the Mahāvairocanābhisaṃbodhi
(T. 1796). More narrowly, one finds sectarian-specific commentaries
and other texts, such as collections of ritual manuals and recent, large-
scale bibliographic compilations.
Particularly important for research is the recent attention paid to
ephemera and archival materials, such a kirikami. Other explo-
rations have extended to non-Buddhist literatures, e.g., Daoist works
and their interactions with esoteric Buddhism (Mollier 2009), and the
“Shintō” Nakatomi Harae Kunge (Teeuwen and van der Veere 1998).
(^32) For a discussion of the esoteric pantheon see Sørensen, “Central Divinities in the
Esoteric Buddhist Pantheon in China,” in this volume. 33
Although there are early South Asian cults involving the seven ṛsis and the dip-̣
per there is no evidence of Buddhist cults in South Asia involving the dipper. All
evidence points to these developments as East Asian innovations. For the ṛsis and the ̣
dipper see Michiner 1982. For details and bibliography concerning Chinese develop-
ments see Sørensen, “Astrology and the Worship of the Planets in Esoteric Buddhism
of the Tang,” in this volume.