392 henrik h. sØrensen
a sizable number of texts that were the product of the local tradition. It
is therefore not surprising that much of this material reflects a fusion
between Esoteric Buddhist practices common to Chinese Buddhism
and the local tradition.
Initiation of the Buddhist believers into the secrets of Esoteric Bud-
dhism was the province of the ācāryas, a practice that also included
the dead. Practices, beliefs, and the use of spells and dhāraṇīs in con-
nection with a variety of rituals undoubtedly represent the core of the
Bai’s Esoteric Buddhist practice. In contrast to the rest of medieval
China where mastery of Sanskrit was reserved for very few people, it
would appear that the ācāryas of Dali were adepts in the writing and
use of Devanāgarī. Although not exclusive to spells, the vast majority
of those written on paper or engraved on stone are all in Sanskrit. Sid-
dham script was equally widespread. However, all the extant scriptures
point to the dominance of written Chinese as the preferred mode of
transmitting Buddhist literature.
Nanzhao and Dali was the home of many Buddhist cults, among
which those devoted to Avalokiteśvara (in a number of forms, most
of which belonged to Esoteric Buddhism) was preeminent. This was
undoubtedly due to the close link that existed between the Nanzhao
rulers and the bodhisattva as transmitted via the kingdom’s founda-
tion myth. Also of great importance were the cults of Mahākāla and
Vaiśravaṇa, both of which had the status of tutelary deities.
Cremation was common among the medieval Bai, and it would
appear that disposal of bodies on a funerary pyre was the norm for
both monastics and laypeople. Burial practices were greatly influenced
by Esoteric Buddhist beliefs, something that can be clearly seen on
funerary jars and the small burial caskets of stone. The introduction
of Chinese-style burial in the region probably began after the Yuan
conquest in the second half of the thirteenth century.
Buddhism under the Nanzhao (and in particular that of the suc-
ceeding Dali), about which much more is known, was not exclusively
esoteric in nature, but encompassed other traditions as well, includ-
ing the Huayan and Chan. One may even argue that Dali
Buddhism was a hybrid of several Buddhist traditions, although Eso-
teric Buddhism and its rituals appear to have been dominant, at least
politically. This situation may have been related to the practice of the
ācāryas bestowing abhiṣeka on the rulers, something that took place
on a regular basis.