. esoteric buddhist art under the tang 409
Other items from the underground treasury of Famen Temple with
references to Esoteric Buddhism include a unique, painted gold and
silver image of an offering bodhisattva kneeling on a high lotus throne.
Generic offering bodhisattvas of this type are commonly found in con-
nection with certain Esoteric Buddhist mandalas, usually in a set of
four, one for each of the cardinal points (Zhang et al. 1990, 98–101).
In this case, however, there is only one. What is especially interesting
here is that the lotus throne is decorated with engraved images. All the
petals of the upper lotus seat have images of buddhas and bodhisat-
tvas in a manner resembling a mandala. The middle section of the
stand has images of the Four Heavenly Kings, and encircling the rim
of the base are those of eight vidyārājas including Acala, Ucchuṣma,
Kuṇḍalī, Mahātejas, Hayagrīva, etc., all of which occupy important
roles in mature Esoteric Buddhism. In the orthodox transmission
of Esoteric Buddhism from Amoghavajra the traditional group of
vidyārājas normally consists of five divinities, one for each of the five
kulas. However, here we have eight such protectors, which indicates
that new iconographic and ritual developments took place in Esoteric
Buddhism in the course of the ninth century.^18 Other relics from the
crypt showing the influence of Esoteric Buddhism include a miniature
khakkara with a standing vajra in its top section, a squat, kuṇḍikā-like
vase of parcel-gilt silver, and a pair of finger rings, all of which feature
double vajras (Zhang et al. 1990, 105–106, 118, 133–134). As can be
seen from these examples, no fixed program based on Esoteric Bud-
dhist practices and iconic lore can with any reason be associated with
the relic chamber of the Famen Temple, although Esoteric Buddhism
can be said to have left its imprint on many of the votive offerings
placed in the crypt.^19
Esoteric Buddhist Art at Dunhuang
Regarding the Esoteric Buddhist art from the Tang found at Dunhuang,
it makes sense to see this material as representing three different stages
(^18) Howard 1999 has asserted that groups of eight vidyārājas are special to south-
western China, i.e., Yunnan and Sichuan. In the light of the relics from Famen Temple
this is, of course, an incorrect assessment. 19
A similar conclusion can be found in Luo 1995. This article places an emphasis
on the Vajradhātu Mandala as the iconic inspiration for the relic casket containing the
so-called finger bone of the Buddha, but otherwise acknowledges the secular structure
of the crypt itself.