526 george a. keyworth
to both Viṣṇu (Nārāyaṇa and Vināyaka) and Śiva (Maheśvara and
Rudra); nearly all demonic forms of Buddhist divinities, malevolent or
munificent, have been deemed esoteric or tantric using this approach
(Strickmann 1996; Yoritomi 1999). The text that can most closely be
connected to the popularization of an esoteric form of Avalokiteśvara
in China is the Nīlakaṇṭha[ka] (Qianshouqianyan Guanshiyin pusa
guangda yuanman wuai dabeixin tuoluoni jing
, T. 1060), translated by Qiefandamo
(Bhagavaddharma[?]) between 650–660, which presents the
Great Compassion Spell (Dabei zhou , Mahā-karuṇika-citta-
dhāraṇī) of the thousand-hand and thousand-eye (Sahasrabhuja-
sahasranetra, Qianshou qianyan ; sometimes depicted with
a thousand eyes and a thousand arms, Qianyan qianbi ),
Avalokiteśvara. This form of Avalokiteśvara parallels Śiva’s consort,
Umā, in non-Buddhist Indian religious traditions. Over time, the Chi-
nese erroneously identified the interlocuter—the green-necked lord
(Nīlakaṇtha, Qingjing ̣ )—as a manifestation of Avalokiteśvara
(Iyanaga 2002, ch. 9; Noguchi 1999; Chandra 1988, 31–32). Scholars
have noted the rapid dissemination of this text, and its esoteric form of
the Great Compassionate Guanyin, across China by the tenth century
to sites ranging from the Mogao caves near Dunhuang
to Baodingshan near Dazu , in the present-day munici-
pality of Chongqing (Kamata 2003, 212–19).
Several other forms of Avalokiteśvara have been considered eso-
teric, largely based on the Womb Mandala (garbhadhātu, taizangjie,
taizōkai ) described in the Mahāvairocana sūtra ( Dari jing
, T. 848). Avalokiteśvara figures most prominently in the Lotus
section (lianhua buyuan ), where five forms can be found:
Noble (Āryāvalokiteśvara, Sheng guanzizai ); he/she who
fishes for or lassos beings to bring them to awakening (Amoghapāśa or
Amoghavajra, Bukongjuan ) (Meisenzahl 1962); Tārā (Duoluo
); horse-headed (Hayagrīva, Matou Guanyin ) (van
Gulik 1935); and wheel of the wish-fulfilling gem (Cintāmaṇicakra,
Ruyilun Guanyin ). Avalo kiteśvara also resides among
the retinues of Śākyamuni Buddha (Shijia yuan ) and Mañjuśrī
Bodhisattva (Wenshu yuan ) (Yoritomo 1999c; Iyanaga 2002).
In China, several other female deities have been associated with
Avalokiteśvara, including Sitātapatrā (Baisangai ), which figures
prominently in the Chinese Śūraṅgama sūtra as well as later, tantric