656 henrik h. sørensen
(and still are) invoked in Buddhist temples in conjunction with the
recitation of the Prajñāpāramitā hṛdaya sūtra.^81
Conclusion
Esoteric Buddhism enjoyed a thriving presence during the Chosŏn
period as a pan-Buddhist, non-sectarian, and mainly ritual tradition.
Its presence permeated virtually all aspects of Buddhist ritual practices
including the daily rituals in the temples and larger, communal cere-
monies and cultic events such as the water and land rituals and prayers
for the auspicious rebirths of deceased members of the royalty.
Esoteric Buddhist literature from the Chosŏn period is highly
diverse and consists of a number of traditional sūtras (some in abbre-
viated form), various apocryphal scriptures, and other minor tracts,
as well as occasional addresses. However, generally stated it is domi-
nated by a variety of ritual manuals and spell collections. Both the
primary sources, such as the Yijo sillŏk pulgyo ch’ŏjon and the writings
of important monks, and the numerous ritual manuals indicate that
the suryuk type of rituals were very important throughout the Chosŏn
period. In fact, the related ritual manuals make up the bulk of the
ritual texts and manuals published during the course of the dynasty.
The various practices connected with the empowerment of Buddhist
stūpas, images, and paintings continued unabated from the Koryŏ,
although in the course of the Chosŏn there was a clear tendency
towards uniformity and standardization. The concept of empower-
ment was important throughout the dynasty, as has been documented
by the pokchang or “magical intestines” retrieved from many images.
During the Chosŏn, Korean Buddhism assimilated many popular
Buddhist and Daoist practices from China, including the writing of
talismans and magical charts. The ability of many Korean monks to
write Siddham script, especially in connection with liturgical texts as
well as for ornamentation, continued throughout the dynasty and well
into the twentieth century.
Above we have seen that during the middle of the Chosŏn, Sŏn
meditation and Esoteric Buddhist visualization were harmonized in
connection with various ritual practices. Many leading figures in the
(^81) For a brief description of the rituals as performed in the Korean Buddhist tem-
ples today, see Buswell 1992, 39, 229–42. For the visual context, see Sørensen 1989,
19–20, pls. 42–44.