72 ronald m. davidsonTo a greater or lesser degree, all of these had overlapping values and
extended from the fundamental meaning of the term, derived from the
root √abhisiñj- (“to sprinkle or asperse”). This is the reason that Chi-
nese translators rendered the term literally (guanding or rarely
jiaojing ), although Tibetans opted for a metaphorical rendering,
“empowerment” (dbang bskur), which identified the force of the rite;
the difference highlights a curious instance in the reversal of their
respective standard translation procedures, where Chinese tended in
most cases to emphasize sense while Tibetans concentrated on a literal
rendering.
The first two of the above list of six were rites appropriate to over-
lords or emperors (rājādhirāja or cakravartin), even if we sometimes
encounter local princes arrogating both the rites and the epithets for
the purpose of feudal posturing. The difference between the rite of
coronation and renewal is that the former was more often referred to
as the “great coronation” (mahābhiṣeka) while the latter was desig-
nated the “renewed consecration” (punarabhiṣeka), either to be per-
formed on the anniversary of the great coronation or in the winter
month of Pausa (December–January, ̣ pauṣābhiṣeka). In both kinds of
abhiṣeka, the older versions of the rite found in early Brahmanical lit-
erature required the emperor/prince to be sprinkled with water drawn
from the four directions, brought in cups of four kinds of wood, and
the ritual paraphernalia were generally fashioned in accordance with
the organic aesthetics of Vedic sacrifices generally (Aitareyabrāhmaṇa
VIII.5–24 [Keith 1920, 322–339]; Gonda 1957, 32–44; Heesterman
1957; Thomas 1908–1926). Both coronation and renewal rituals were
always associated with homa sacrifices and related Brahmanical rites,
and generally fit into the category of “great” ceremonies (śrauta) rather
than domestic (gṛhya) rites, so that coronation rituals are described as
requiring three fires and the presence of Brahmins reciting from the
various Vedas.
Over time, our sources indicate that the rite matured significantly,
gaining importance through the increased attention to rituals associ-
ated with kingship or imperium. Consequently, by the beginning of
the medieval period, the emperor was coronated/consecrated with
water brought in vases (kalaśa) of four kinds of materials (gold, sil-
ver, copper, and clay) and aspersed with mud from sacred rivers,
aspersed with milk and the other products of the cow, had a silk or
gold crown (paṭṭa) tied over his turban (usṇ̣īṣa), was toured around
on a chariot, and was finally enthroned. He was then considered