tively). Philo makes it very clear that Flaccus’s disgrace was a divine pun-
ishment (Flacc.180–91). Even Artapanus gives an example of divine retri-
bution when he writes that, because of his treatment of the Jews, the
Egyptian ruler Chenephres was the first man to contract elephantiasis (frg.
3 in Eusebius,Praep. Evang.9.27.20). The Wisdom of Solomon also recalls
God’s intervention in favor of Israel and his chastisement of the Egyptians
and the Canaanites. Yet it argues first and foremost that the righteous will
be blessed with eternal life, whereas his adversaries will be punished and
disappear forever. Similarly, theTestament of Jobdescribes the righteous
hero who suffers but is finally rewarded and achieves immortality, in con-
trast to the wicked Elihu, who is condemned to permanent destruction. In
all cases, what is at stake is divine justice and the ways it manifests itself, ei-
ther in this world or in the afterlife, at a collective or individual level. In the
latter, eschatological concerns lead to the belief in bodily resurrection
(2 Maccabees,Sibylline Oracles4) and the immortality of the soul (Wis-
dom of Solomon, Philo,Testament of Job). Messianic expectations do not
figure prominently in Jewish literature written in Greek, although some
hints may be found in Philo, Josephus, andSibylline Oracles5.
To God’s faithfulness toward Israel corresponds Israel’s faithfulness to
God and his Law. Jewish texts written in Greek tend to present the Jewish
people as pious. Apostates are few. In 2 Maccabees, impious Jews in Jerusa-
lem try to introduce a Greek way of life and to alter the ancestral customs,
thus causing the wrath of God to fall on the Judeans (4:7-17). In 3 Macca-
bees, some Jews yield to Ptolemy’s threats and promises, and apostatize
through their initiation into the Dionysian mysteries (2:31-33). However, in
both these books the vast majority of the Jews remain faithful to the cov-
enant. At a more individual level, Aristeas and theTestament of Jobretell
the story of Job, the righteous man who continued to trust in God despite
his great hardships. Particularly interesting are the stories of martyrdom
or readiness to undergo martyrdom in 2, 3 and 4 Maccabees, as well as in
several passages in Philo and Josephus (though martyrdom should be dis-
tinguished from noble death and suicide). Martyrdom is the supreme ex-
pression of the Jews’ faithfulness to God’s laws. Jewish readiness to die for
the Law is emphasized by several authors, including Philo and Josephus.
Conversely, apart from allusions in Daniel and 1 Maccabees (whose ac-
count is much shorter than that of 2 Maccabees and does not promote
martyrdom), this theme does not appear frequently in Jewish literature
written in Hebrew or Aramaic, even if apocalyptic literature often refers to
a period of trials before the final reward of the elect. However, the more246katell berthelotEERDMANS -- Early Judaism (Collins and Harlow) final text
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