definition or a label applied to them by the city officials who commis-
sioned the inscription (IJO2:177-79).Asia Minor
For the growing Jewish communities in Asia Minor, literary texts are virtu-
ally our only sources before the second centuryc.e.Here the fragmentary
nature of our archaeological material is especially deplorable.Palestine in the Herodian Period (40b.c.e.–39c.e.)
The separation of the Hasmonean from the Herodian period is to a large
extent artificial and follows historical rather than archaeological catego-
ries. In many respects, Herodian material culture not only builds upon
earlier developments and inventions but also intensifies and differentiates
them.
Herod’s grandiose building projects put him in the first rank among
his fellow eastern regents (see map 8). Usually, three phases of construc-
tion are distinguished. The first phase lasted from his accession to power in
40 b.c.e.to the Battle of Actium in 31b.c.e.and comprised fortresses (the
refurbishment of older ones at Alexandrion, Machaerus, and Masada and
the construction of new ones at Antonia, Hyrcania, and Cyprus) and pal-
aces (the western palace at Masada, the first palace at Jericho, and perhaps
the palace at Callirhoe).
The second phase, which extended from the Battle of Actium until the
visit of Augustus’s friend Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa to Judea in 15b.c.e.,
saw the most numerous and largest of Herod’s building projects. Military
architecture decreased; the focus now lay on development of the realm
through cities, palaces, and buildings for entertainment and cult. After the
construction of the theater and amphitheater in Jerusalem, Herod founded
Sebaste, Herodium, and Caesarea Maritima; built the sanctuary in Paneas,
his palace in Jerusalem, the second palace in Jericho, and the northern pal-
ace in Masada; and started expanding the Temple in Jerusalem.
The third phase of Herod’s building program extended from the visit
of Agrippa until Herod’s death in 4b.c.e.Few new accents appear in this
phase. Many of the projects started in the second phase were continued.
Complementary initiatives were the embellishment of David’s tomb in Je-337Archaeology, Papyri, and InscriptionsEERDMANS -- Early Judaism (Collins and Harlow) final text
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