68 Chris Hudson
of the island growing from 36 per cent in 1987 to 47 per cent in 2007 (Lee Siew
Hua 2011). The reputation of Singapore as a clean environment where fines are
imposed for littering is apparently as enduring as its reputation as a paradise of
shopping and eating. Now renowned for being not just clean but also “clean and
green”, the long-term greening process has had important consequences for the
conservation of bio-diversity and the amelioration of a tropical climate, among
other environmental benefits.
The rise of the Global City for the Arts and the Global City of Buzz has been
paralleled by the transformation of Singapore from “Garden City” to “City in a
Garden” (as the National Parks Board has it), a strategy designed not only to keep
the city clean and green but also to instill a sense of environmental order that
would appeal to global elites, tourists, and investors. The president of the Republic
of Singapore, Tony Tan Keng Yam, is quoted as saying that “Our reputation as a
City in a Garden enhances Singapore’s attractiveness as a destination for tourists,
foreign businesses and global talents [sic]” (National Parks Board 2013, n.p.). Lee
Kuan Yew said of the project that “greening was positive competition” (Lee Kuan
Yew 2000, p. 177). “Nature”, like excitement, is now highly marketable and has
been mobilized in the interests of continuing economic development. Macnaghten
and Urry suggest that in the context of global capitalism nature has become a
mere artefact of consumer choice (1999, p. 25). In Singapore, the cultural capital
generated by the Global City for the Arts collaborates with environmental capital
to produce a powerful sensory mode for the creation of the affective spaces so
crucial for an economy of consumption. The potent combination of culture,
nature, and affect is exemplified in Orchard Road. As one of the premier shopping
precincts in Singapore and, in Ritzer’s terms, a landscape of consumption (2010),
Orchard Road is also a horticultural landscape featuring an abundance of tropical
trees and shrubs, a constant reminder that Singapore now styles itself not only as a
Global City for the Arts but also as an eco-culture. This has been facilitated by the
actions of the National Parks Board, under the Ministry of National Development.
The Ministry’s stated aim was “to bring parks and green spaces right to the
doorsteps of people’s homes and workplaces” as a way of “enhancing lifestyle
experiences” (Ministry of National Development n.d., pp. 30–2).
The intrusion of greenery into city spaces as paradoxical “urban wilds” blurs
the distinction between what is conventionally understood as rural and what is
normally seen as urban and serves to reinforce the pervasive sense of eco-culture.
The official Singapore Tourism website, YourSingapore.com, promotes this
dissolving of the boundaries. Under the headings “Nature Lover, Step into the
Wilderness” and “Be One with Nature,” it exclaims
Don’t let the gleaming skyscrapers fool you; bursts of lush green lie
interspersed within Singapore’s cityscape. Hear the hustle and bustle of the
city fade away as you step into ancient rainforests and nature reserves situated
a short hop away from the central business district. Explore the myriad
nature trails, wildlife parks and landscaped gardens that Singapore has to
offer, or venture out to the neighbouring islands for a spot of snorkelling or