Progressivism 111It cannotbe deniedthatWilliamGrahamSumnerandHerbertSpencerheldsome
condescendingopinionsof nonwhiteraces.This,however,was not somethingtheyattrib-
utedprimarilyto geneticsor inbornbiology,but to nonwhiteracescomingfromcultural
backgroundsquitedissimilarfromthe WesternEnlightenmenttradition. To be sure,
Spencerdid believethattwoparents’ freelychosencustomscouldinfluencethe overall
makeupof theirchildren’s inbornpredispositions.In the end,nonetheless,whenSpencer
andSumnerconcludedthatvalidgeneralizations couldbe inducedabout an ethnic
group’s behaviorsor ethicalstanding,thosegeneralizedbehaviorsresultedmostlyfrom
culturalconditioning,not mostlygenetics.^68 Hence,Bannisterconcludes,“howeverobjec-
tionableto modernstandards” werethe condescendingly“paternalistic... philanthropy
andeducation” that“HerbertSpencerandhis Americandisciples” suggestedfor non-
whites,thatattitudewas“moderate,humane,andconstructiveby comparisonwiththe
theoriesand practicesof the Jim Crowera” that Ray StannardBakerdidsupport.^69
AlsocontrastBaker’s attitudeagainstthatof anothergroupof peoplenotoriously
slanderedas socialDarwinists—big businessmen.Accordingto popularmyth,wealthy
corporateexecutivesare proneto bigoteddiscrimination.MalcolmX blared,“Youcan’t
haveracismwithoutcapitalism.If youfindantiracists,they’re usuallysocialistsor their
politicalphilosophyis thatof socialism.” In fact,SouthernIllinoisUniversityhistorian
JonathanJ. Beanhas amasseda collectionof historicaldataevincingthat numerousmajor
corporationslobbiedagainstJim Crowandsegregation.Uponfailingto amendthese
racistpolicies,someof thesebusinessesoutrightviolatedtheselaws.Theyhadan eco-
nomicincentiveto do so. In theirquestfor additionaldollars,theyobservedenormous
untappedmarketsin the formof racialminoritieswhoseconsumerdemandwasnot
beingservicedadequatelyby the competition.As Coca-Colaignoredthe enormouspoten-
tial for African-Americancustomers,Pepsi-Colaeagerlymarketedto themin the South,
despitesuchmarketingbeingillegalat the time.In 1898and 1900,the AugustaStreetcar
Companydesiredto serveblackpassengersandhirethe ablestemployees,no matter
whatracetheymaybe. Consequently,the company’s president,D. B. Dyer,and its coun-
sel, BoykinWright,wrotelettersto city officialsrequestingthe repealof segregation.^70
Consideran anecdotefromthe life of ChrisGardner(b. 1954).As he detailsin his
memoirThe Pursuitof Happyness, he rosefroma life of homelessnessto one as a million-
aire.Of course,that ascensionwasnot easy.WhenGardnerworkedat the brokerageBear
Stearns,he handleda high-rollingclient,whominPursuithe identifiesas “J.R.,” with
whomhe initiallydealtonlyoverthe telephone.Gardnerexecutedvarioustradeswith
J.R. andmademillionsof dollarsfor him.But,to Gardner’s consternation,it neveroc-
curredto J.R. thatGardnerwasblack.On the assumptionthatGardnerwaswhite,J.R.
continuallycrackedbigotedjokesto GardneraboutblacksandJews.EventuallyJ.R. re-
questedthat theymeetin person.Gardnerfearedthat onceJ.R. saw him,J.R. wouldrefuse
to workwithhimeveragain.^71 Instead,Gardnernarratesto TV reporterBob Brown,J.R.
“closedeveryotheraccountthathe had.We did all of his businessuntilthe dayhe
died.... That’s whenI learnedin this business,it’s not a blackthing;it’s not a whitething.
It’s a greenthing.” The capitalistattitude,Gardnerparaphrases,is: “If youcan makeme
money,I don’t carewhatcoloryouare.”^72 Thatprinciplecontinuesto applythroughout
the marketeconomy.
Similarly,it wasbusinessacumen,morethanit waslegislation,whichled to social
progressfor women.Thefirsttimethata womanwaseverhiredas a detectivein the
UnitedStates,the decisionwasnot madeby a progressivegovernmentagencybut a
profit-hungrybusiness.The businesswasAllanPinkerton’s (1819–1884)NationalDetec-
tive Agency,and the womanwasKateWarne(1833–1868).^73 Whenno governmentagen-
cy woulddo so, PinkertonsoughtassistancefromWarneon accountof her beinghighly
qualifiedfor the position,regardlessof her gender.