experience in the cognitive appraisal of stress runs counter to the idea that general
stress can be defined by a specific stimulus. Certain stimuli, such as unexpected
loud noises or infliction of pain, do reliably precede a general stress response, but
much of what induces general stress cannot be determined for all individuals in
advance. In stress experiments where noises are interspersed with pre-defined
non-stressful“easy-listening music,”some individuals dislike this type of music,
andfind its unwanted presence to be stressful, particularly if they cannot silence it
or opt for different music (Burns et al. 1999 ). This highlights another concern in
research involving general stress: the lack of a clearly defined null condition. This
lack makes it difficult tofind suitable control conditions for evaluating the stress
response.
The stress response evolved as an adaptive process; thefight orflight component
of the stress response, for instance, prepares the organism to defend itself from
danger by eitherfleeing or actively defending itself. Psychosocial stress responses
are sometimes viewed as being maladaptive in the modern environment where
predation—at least by other species—is not a major concern. However, the alarm
reaction of the stress response, by activating arousal systems, can be viewed as
remaining an adaptive process. The response itself may be uncomfortable, and
therefore motivates the individual to solve whatever problem is stimulating the
stress response (Ursin and Eriksen 2004 ).
In searching for an operational definition of psychosocial stress, use of stimuli is
fraught with problems, and there is no direct means to measure cognitive appraisal
or however else an intervening variable may be defined. Accordingly, stress
researchers generally rely on responses as an indicator of the presence, and mag-
nitude, of psychosocial stress. These responses may be in the form of self-reports or
other types of reporting measured by psychological questionnaires, or by physio-
logical states.
Self-Reports of Stress
Reliance upon self-reports as the measure of both the presence and intensity of
stress is common in many studies. The self-reports take many forms, from psy-
chological instruments to simple ratings of current stress to diary reports, and from
long-term life events to short-term hassles scales. Population and individual level
differences have been found in these scores, but it is unclear whether this implies a
“real”difference in stress levels, or a culturally based reporting bias (Nielsen et al.
2006 ). Figure7.1shows the steps involved in a stress self-report.
Stimulus
Cognitions/
AppraisalsConsciousness
of AppraisalsDecision to
ReportFig. 7.1 Steps toward a self-report of stress
7 Stress Biomarkers as an Objective Window on Experience 119