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experience in the cognitive appraisal of stress runs counter to the idea that general


stress can be defined by a specific stimulus. Certain stimuli, such as unexpected


loud noises or infliction of pain, do reliably precede a general stress response, but


much of what induces general stress cannot be determined for all individuals in


advance. In stress experiments where noises are interspersed with pre-defined


non-stressful“easy-listening music,”some individuals dislike this type of music,


andfind its unwanted presence to be stressful, particularly if they cannot silence it


or opt for different music (Burns et al. 1999 ). This highlights another concern in


research involving general stress: the lack of a clearly defined null condition. This


lack makes it difficult tofind suitable control conditions for evaluating the stress


response.


The stress response evolved as an adaptive process; thefight orflight component


of the stress response, for instance, prepares the organism to defend itself from


danger by eitherfleeing or actively defending itself. Psychosocial stress responses


are sometimes viewed as being maladaptive in the modern environment where


predation—at least by other species—is not a major concern. However, the alarm


reaction of the stress response, by activating arousal systems, can be viewed as


remaining an adaptive process. The response itself may be uncomfortable, and


therefore motivates the individual to solve whatever problem is stimulating the


stress response (Ursin and Eriksen 2004 ).
In searching for an operational definition of psychosocial stress, use of stimuli is


fraught with problems, and there is no direct means to measure cognitive appraisal


or however else an intervening variable may be defined. Accordingly, stress


researchers generally rely on responses as an indicator of the presence, and mag-


nitude, of psychosocial stress. These responses may be in the form of self-reports or


other types of reporting measured by psychological questionnaires, or by physio-


logical states.


Self-Reports of Stress


Reliance upon self-reports as the measure of both the presence and intensity of


stress is common in many studies. The self-reports take many forms, from psy-


chological instruments to simple ratings of current stress to diary reports, and from


long-term life events to short-term hassles scales. Population and individual level


differences have been found in these scores, but it is unclear whether this implies a


“real”difference in stress levels, or a culturally based reporting bias (Nielsen et al.


2006 ). Figure7.1shows the steps involved in a stress self-report.


Stimulus
Cognitions/
Appraisals

Consciousness
of Appraisals

Decision to
Report

Fig. 7.1 Steps toward a self-report of stress


7 Stress Biomarkers as an Objective Window on Experience 119

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