Similarly, SMC assessed by the Memory Complaint Questionnaire (MAC-Q; Crook
et al. 1992 ), which includes 5 items regarding difficulties in everyday memory tasks
and one item comparing current memory function to past memory function, were
unrelated to attention/working memory, executive function, and new
learning/memory after controlling for depression. SMC measured by the MAC-Q
were, however, significantly associated with processing speed (Reid et al. 2012 ).
Other studies, however, dofind associations between scores on some compre-
hensive scales and performance on objective tests. A cross-sectional study of 283
people aged 45–94 years utilized the Ability and Frequency scales from the
Memory Assessment Clinics Self-Rating Scale (MAC-S, Revised; Winterling et al.
1986 ), which includes 45 items assessing memory ability in specific situations and
the frequency of certain memory problems. In this study, SMC were significantly
related to verbal memory performance, independent of personality factors,
depression, anxiety, and age (Pearman and Storandt 2004 ). Similarfindings were
reported in a study of 199 healthy, community-dwelling adults aged 39–89 years
(Bolla et al. 1991 ) where SMC were assessed with the Metamemory Questionnaire
(MMQ; Zelinski et al. 1980 ), a precursor to the MFQ described above. Overall,
general memory rating was predicted by depressive symptoms and was unrelated to
objective memory performance. Additionally, cognition was unrelated to 6 of the
remaining MMQ subscales. However, story recall performance was significantly
related to the MMQ subscale“recall of information that is read in a novel, news-
paper, or magazine article”(Bolla et al. 1991 ). This early study points to the
possible advantages of querying SMC in specific contexts (e.g., when reading).
SMC may relate to cognitive functions other than memory. For instance, using
the Maastricht Attention and Memory Checklist (MAC), which assessed attention
and memory factors separately, Scholtissen-In de Braek et al. ( 2011 ) found that the
subjective attention factor was unrelated to cognitive performance, but the sub-
jective memory factor was associated with processing speed. Thesefindings, like
the studies in midlife women described above (Weber et al. 2012 ; Drogos et al.
2013 ), highlight the importance of non-mneumonic aspects of cognitive function
that contribute to everyday memory performance.
Neuroimaging studies provide insights into the extent to which SMC relate to
objective measures of brain function. Use of neuroimaging methods in thisfield is
advantageous as neuroimaging measures are typically more sensitive than perfor-
mance measures to the aspects of cognitive function. For example, in a study of 23
healthy women aged 50–60 years (Dumas et al. 2013 ), SMC were assessed with
several questionnaires (Saykin et al. 2006 ), objective cognitive function was
assessed by a comprehensive test battery, and brain function was assessed by fMRI.
Compared to those with few to no complaints, women with significant SMC
showed increased activation in brain regions that are critical for working memory.
This functional brain difference was evident despite similar performance between
the groups on tests of working memory and verbal memory. Thesefindings suggest
that those with SMC may be working harder to obtain the same level of
13 Subjective Memory Complaints and Objective Memory Performance 283