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Correlates Among Younger Children


Among young children (* 3 – 8 years), several factors are consistently associated


with physical activity: (1) sex—boys are more active than girls; (2) parental


physical activity—children with active parents are more likely to be active;


(3) parental involvement—if parents are active with their children, the children will


more likely be active; and (4) time outdoors (not considered in the systematic
reviews)—time spent outdoors is positively associated with physical activity. Given


variation in living conditions, factors which influence opportunities for outdoor play


are relevant for physical activity. Among preschool children, the odds of going


outdoors to play were higher for boys than girls, higher when there were three or


more playmates, and also higher when parents were active. On the other hand, the


odds of going outdoors to play were lower for girls, for children whose mothers


were working, and for children of Asian, Black, and Hispanic compared to White


mothers (Tandon et al. 2012 ).


There is a need for study of the role of siblings and peers, day care and preschool


attendance, and caregivers/teachers as factors affecting physical activity among


young children. Children enrolled in head start, for example, spent 63 min per day


outdoors (Tandon et al. 2013 ), but only 58% of children not enrolled in day care


went outdoors daily (Tandon et al. 2012 ).


Correlates Among Adolescents


Major factors positively affecting physical activity among adolescents 13–18 years


included (1) sex—boys were more likely to be active than girls; (2) history of


physical activity—those active as children were more likely to be active as ado-


lescents; (3) access to sports, both formal and informal—youth involved in sport
were more likely to be active; (4) parental and peer support—youth with more


support were more likely to be active; (5) self-efficacy—youth with higher


self-concept, perceived competence, motivation, achievement orientation, etc., were


more likely to be active (Sallis et al. 2000 ; Van der Horst et al. 2007 ). On the other


hand, age, non-White ethnicity, barriers to activity, and time spent sedentary after


school or on weekends were negative correlates of physical activity among


adolescents.


The fact that individuals with a history of physical activity during childhood are


more likely to be active as adolescents relate to the tracking of activity. Tracking


refers to the tendency of individuals to maintain their rank or position within a


group over time (Malina2001a,b). Estimates of tracking require longitudinal


observations for at least two points in time. Relationships between physical activity


during childhood and activity in adolescence, as well as tracking of activity during


adolescence, tend to be moderate at best (Malina2001a,b,c). The associations


should be viewed in the context of different meanings attached to activity by


82 R.M. Malina et al.

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