specific and complete gene expression set.^3 The integration between genomics and
transcriptomics discovers the genetic loci-influenced gene expression levels.^4
Proteomics, together with phosphoproteomics, glycoproteomics, and techno-
logies for defining other posttranslational modifications (PTMs) of proteins,
as well as peptidomics, are (in ideal case) the complete profiling of proteins (and
peptides), again, in a specific cell or tissue and again in a particular moment or
condition. Starting with an impressing, and also intensively discussed work by
Petricoin et al.,^5 in the last more than 12 years now there are thousands of papers
suggesting the potential of this technology to validate novel theranostic disease
biomarkers. The non- or minimally invasive nature of easy collection of biological
fluids such as blood serum, plasma, urine, and saliva makes them an ideal source of
biomarker discovery. However, further investigations have shown that both sample
collection and preparation can significantly influence the results of a particular
analysis and lead to systematic errors.^6 According to some authors, “even rigorous
Fig. 1 “Omics cascade,” from genome to metabolome, according to Pesce et al. (reproduced from
Pesce et al. 2013 , with permission)
(^3) Hodgin and Cohen ( 2010 ), pp. 455–457.
(^4) Perl ( 2007 ), pp. 22–26; Papeta et al. ( 2009 ), pp. 1178–1188.
(^5) Petricoin et al. (2002a), pp. 572–577.
(^6) Josic ( 2014 ), p. e111.
The Role of Proteomics in Personalized Medicine 181