early-stage ischemic identification at a point prior to cell death.^115 Recent advances
in quantitative proteomic approaches demonstrate good consistency and correlation
with ELISA assay results in serum samples of myocardial infarction patients.^116
According to Voros,^117 for transition to personalized approach, a precise
phenotyping is first prerequisite (described earlier in this chapter) since, for exam-
ple, use of myocardial infarction as phenotype is limited by the fact that it combines
different biology, including that of atherosclerosis, plaque rupture, and thrombosis.
Noninvasive blood- or tissue-based pan-omics signatures are critical for the assem-
bly of comprehensive, multidimensional networks of health and disease. Pan-omics
signatures involve whole genome sequencing, transcriptomics, proteomics,
lipidomics, and metabolomics. However, invasive coronary angiography (com-
puted tomography) is still the main pillar of phenotyping in most contemporary
studies. This indicates that new approaches are needed and large comprehensive
proteomic studies that may provide advance in phenotyping that is still missing.
5.3 Urological Diseases
About 5 % of total deaths per year in the European Union are related to urological
cancer, namely prostate and bladder cancer.^118 The most frequent urological cancer
is prostate cancer in men. This cancer was already discussed above, but some less
frequent forms of this cancer such as castration-resistant and PSA negative prostate
cancer and proteomic and genomic investigation in order to understand its cellular
mechanism and possible therapeutic approaches shall be mentioned here.^119
Changes in targeted tissue are also in the case of urological diseases (including
cancer) are more closely related to the changes caused by particular pathology.
However, it has to be stressed again that tissue sampling is much more invasive and
also more time consuming than collecting and sample preparation of body fluids. In
the case of urological diseases, urine is a most frequently analyzed sample,
followed by serum and plasma.^120
Different forms of pathological degeneration of kidneys can be caused by
environmental agents and also by autoimmune diseases.^121 Aristolochic acid
nephropathy (AAN), now also called Chinese-herb nephropathy (CHN), was firstly
reported in the early 90s in a Belgian cohort of more than 100 patients after
(^115) Edwards et al. ( 2008 ), pp. 1824–1837; Cuesta et al. ( 2015 ).
(^116) Huillet et al. ( 2012 ), pp. 1–12.
(^117) Voros ( 2014 ), pp. 239–242.
(^118) Schiffer ( 2011 ), pp. 81–94.
(^119) Mueller et al. ( 2014 ), pp. 818–828; Lee et al. ( 2014 ).
(^120) Lincoln ( 2007 ), p. 148.
(^121) Debelle et al. ( 2008 ), pp. 158–169; Moon et al. ( 2011 ), pp. 2459–2475.
200 D. Josic ́and U. Andjelkovic ́