Another unique aspect of grounded theory is that researchers may use the
literature as data. Both the technical and nontechnical literature can be used
for this purpose (Glaser, 1992; Strauss & Corbin, 1990). Technical literature
includes research reports or theoretical/philosophical papers of a scholarly nature.
Nontechnical literature may include biographies, diaries, reports, newsletters,
and records. Literature could be used as primary data or to supplement data
gathered from interviews.
There is no set sample size for grounded theory. The researcher obtains data
until data saturation is reached. This may be as few as 10 interviews or more
than double that, depending on the data obtained. The use of focus groups, a
strategy often employed in qualitative research, lends itself well to grounded
theory. Focus groups are useful to generate ideas and help formulate inter-
view questions to be used later with key informants. Generally, a focus group
consists of six to eight people with a common interest but who do not know
each other well. The researcher may act as a facilitator by using open-ended
questions to begin the discussion and guide the group to provide sought-after
information. Or the researcher may be a participant observer in a focus group,
such as attending a breast cancer support group to gain insight. Focus groups
have the added benefit of being an excellent way to identify key informants for
one-on-one interviews later (Easton, 1999b).
Another difference between grounded theory and other qualitative meth-
ods is the use of constant comparison. Comparisons are continuously made
among the data. In this way, both data gathering and analysis occur somewhat
simultaneously. The researcher records ideas, thoughts, possible emerging
themes and patterns, questions for follow-up, and potential categories for data
coding. As data are coded and clustered, the researcher continues to explore
commonalities as interviewing and data collection continue. Negative case
examples and conflicting information are also noted. All of these data form the
basis for the final categories that are generated to reflect the process described
by participants. As more interviews are conducted, the emerging theory is
confirmed and refined as the researcher asks more focused questions (Cooney,
2011). In addition, new subconcepts may be added or deleted to further refine
the categories identified.
Examples of Nursing Research
Using Grounded Theory
Folden (1994) used a grounded theory approach to describe how stroke sur-
vivors managed multiple functional deficits produced by stroke. The process
was labeled “ensuring forward progress” (p. 81). Folden indicated that each
person defined recovery “as the accomplishment of personal goals” (p. 81). Her
KEY TERM
focus groups: A
strategy to obtain
data from a small
group of people
using interview
questions9.2 The Four Major Types of Qualitative Research 235