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research. Nurse Researcher, 20 (4), 36–43.» Strategies to maintain scientific rigor include bracketing, persistent observation, peer debrief-
ing, referential adequacy, member checks, and audit trails.
» The four major types of qualitative research are phenomenology, grounded theory, ethnog-
raphy, and historical.
» Phenomenology describes the lived experience and has provided the foundation for some
nursing theories.
» Grounded theory uses constant comparison to create theories about processes.
» Ethnography is the method of choice when studying a culture. Ethnoscience and ethnonurs-
ing are methods used to study cultural interpretations of nursing phenomena such as care,
health, and environment.
» The emic perspective provides the “inside” scoop, while the etic perspective is the outsider’s
viewpoint.
» Historical research examines past events or people with the purpose of guiding the present
and future. Strategic sampling can be used to obtain participants.
» Findings from qualitative studies contribute to EBP by sensitizing nurses to patient experi-
ences and providing theories to explain various processes.
» Qualitative researchers are held to the same ethical standards as are researchers using
other methods; however, some unique ethical considerations are associated with qualitative
methods.248 CHAPTER 9 Qualitative Designs: Using Words to Provide Evidence