Figure 11.3. The deforested slopes of the Pacific foothills below Monteverde are due to burning,
cattle grazing, and other agricultural activities. Photograph by Nathaniel Wheelwright.It was not until the 1990s that Monteverde dairy
farms returned to the production levels of the 1970s,
which was accomplished through genetic improve-
ments, improved veterinary care, better pasture man-
agement, and greater use of feed concentrates (Table
11.3). In the mid-1990s, dairy farming was by far the
most important agricultural activity in the area, with
210 families contributing 9.7 million kg of milk to the
dairy plant during 1993-94. These farmers collec-
tively received gross earnings of 426 million colones
(ca. $2.7 million). Gross revenue at the dairy plant was
about 838 million colones ($5.2 million; Productores
de Monteverde, S.A., pers. comm.). However, the
profitability of dairy farming remained stagnant or de-
clined for most farmers. Production expenses con-
sumed a greater portion of earnings. Increasingly,
farmers have turned to other economic activities.
11.1.2. Sustainability of Monteverde
Upland Dairy ProductionMonteverde dairy farmers perform a juggling act. For
most, earning an adequate income is their primary
consideration, which involves integrating production
levels, availability and cost of labor and other inputs,
management abilities, the quantity and quality of land
required, capital needs, and the environment. Dairy-
ing is not lucrative and many farmers are challenged
to practice environmentally sustainable farm manage-
ment. We discuss five major environmental impacts
of Monteverde dairy production and management op-
tions for improved sustainability.Deforestation. Conversion of forest to pasture is
associated with loss of habitat, reduced biodiversity,
changes in hydrology and microclimate, and in-
creased soil erosion. Although much of the land cur-
rently devoted to dairy was deforested prior to 1950
for other purposes, dairy pasture establishment was
a major cause of deforestation in several upland com-
munities. Approximately 40 upland farms (ca. 560 ha
of pasture) were established for dairy after 1950 (J. L.
Vargas, pers. comm.). In lowland areas, dairying en-
hanced the profitability of existing beef farms but was
not the initial impetus for deforestation. Dairying no
longer stimulates the clearing of additional land in
Monteverde or elsewhere in Costa Rica (Janzen 1988,
D. Kaimowitz, pers. comm.).Erosion. Although pastures occupy only 37% of Costa
Rica's territory and over half the land in use, 84% of
the country's erosion occurs in pastures (Hartshorn
et al. 1982). In the Arenal watershed, erosion on im-
proved (planted) pastures was estimated at 109 met-
ric tons/ha (compared to 1.4 for primary forest and
18.8 for perennial crops). These statistics are based
on the Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE), rather
than field data. The USLE may underestimate erosion394 Agriculture in Monteverde: Moving Toward Sustainability