Monteverde : Ecology and Conservation of a Tropical Cloud Forest

organically with small amounts of output, which
minimizes some sources of environmental damage.
Localized problems with pesticide management or
erosion occur with some vegetable operations.

Poultry production. Commercial poultry production
occurs at a relatively small scale, and chicken manure,
its primary waste product, is a valuable fertilizer. Few
environmental problems are associated with chicken
or egg production. VARSAN, S.A., produces Styro-
foam and plastic packaging waste, however, and in-
tense competition from national producers limits
alternatives to this packaging system.

Hog production. Swine production as practiced by

the dairy plant is considered by many to be environ-

mentally sustainable. Most sustainability questions

concern animal welfare, quality of life for neighbors,

and aesthetic and moral considerations. The low prof-

its generated by the hog farm may limit the opportu-

nities to address these problems.

11.6.2. Directions for Future Research

The primary obstacles to achieving greater agricultural

sustainability in Monteverde are low profitability

(which limits management options to those that are

most profitable, not necessarily most environmentally

sound) and a lack of proven production alternatives.

Agronomic, economic, and policy research will help

reduce barriers to sustainability by demonstrating

which practices are most promising, helping to fine-

tune management to local conditions, and expanding

the range of production alternatives. In some cases,

national policies (e.g., price controls, input taxation,

pesticide regulation) can limit or expand the oppor-

tunities for farmers to become more sustainable.

Dairy. A key area for future research is alternative

forages, which are underused in Monteverde. Grass-

legume mixtures could reduce the need for chemi-

cal fertilizers and improve cow nutrition. Oats and

brassicas need research to evaluate their potential,

fine-tune management, and achieve greater adoption.

Resistance to spittlebugs and other pasture pests

will be a key characteristic of successful alterna-

tive forages. Breeding resistance into Kikuyu Grass

would be a valuable project. Research on the rela-

tive costs and effectiveness of herbicides, "weed-

eater," and machete use will identify the most prom-

ising directions for weed control efforts. Economic

analysis of windbreaks will provide insight into

whether they should receive continued support and

subsidies.

Dual-purpose production. Data on pasture erosion

rates, soil compaction, and degree of over- or under-

grazing are needed to evaluate this system's sustain-

ability. Research should determine the extent of rota-

tional grazing and how to optimize this system for

lowland farm conditions and sharp seasonal fluctua-

tions in forage availability. One of the highest pri-

orities for dual-purpose farms is research on

silvipastoral systems. Live fenceposts are widely

used on lowland farms; biological and ecological

studies on their agroecological and economic ben-

efits are needed.

Coffee production. A key area for research is organic

and low chemical input production. Farmers need

effective strategies for combating common diseases,

fungi, and leaf-cutter ants. Further research is needed

on Arachis pintoi and other cover crops for upland

farms.

Vegetable crops. Research is needed on organic pro-

duction methods that are adapted to the Monteverde

environment. Fungi pose a particular problem for pro-

ducers. Inexpensive, preferably "homemade" organic

fungicides are needed.

Pesticide management. Informal surveys have re-

vealed serious deficiencies in pesticide management.

Research is needed on successful educational and

outreach programs elsewhere that could be adapted

to Monteverde.

Swine production. The agroecological sustainability

of Monteverde's swine production, particularly waste

management, must be studied. Although the dairy

plant has a sophisticated waste management system,

other producers do not. Research is needed on inex-

pensive ways to mitigate noise and odors.

11.6.3. Summary and Conclusions

The lessons and experiences from Monteverde pro-

vide insights that may help other communities meet

the challenge of agricultural sustainability. One of the

primary lessons of the Monteverde experience is that

sustainability is a moving target, requiring reevalu-

ation as political, economic, and cultural realities

evolve, and as new agroecological information be-

comes available. To ensure continued progress, a so-

cial context is needed that encourages honest discus-

sion and evaluation, commits sufficient resources to

sustainability research, and creates a climate of shared

commitment to sustainability. Monteverde's robust,

activist social structure has been a powerful force for

407 Agriculture in Monteverde: Moving Toward Sustainability