229Overall, including shrubs in a dryland environment, in either extensive or semi-
intensive production systems, will reduce several risks to animal productivity, the
environment, and economic outcomes. Bioeconomic modelling has indicated that
converting 5–20 % of a mixed farm to shrub-based systems could increase whole-
farm profit up to 20 % (Monjardino et al. 2010 ). Profit is increased by reductions in
supplementary feeding and in the grazing of regenerating annual pastures, leading
to an increase feed availability throughout the year; moreover, shrubs enable live-
stock production on a greater area of low productivity land (Monjardino et al. 2010 ).
Investigations are required to determine optimal silvopastoral systems for the
world’s diverse dryland environments.
5 Managing the Relationship Between Animals
and Environment
Compared to the tropics, silvopastoral systems in dryland areas have lower stocking
densities and cover a larger area of land, so herds or flocks need to move around
more to take advantage of all the food on offer. There are only a few ways to move
ruminants over areas of land, the oldest being the skilled shepherd or herdsman. In
France, there has been research into the efficacy, importance and complexity of the
human-animal interaction in pastoral areas (Meuret and Provenza 2015b, Provenza
et al. 2015 ). Some high-tech solutions have been developed, from virtual fencing
technology to location of livestock using Unmanned Aerial Vehicles that allow the
remote control of animals (Umstatter 2011 , Freeman and Freeland 2015 ). These
technologies seem to be reliable, but expensive, and the virtual fencing technology
raises animal welfare questions since the animals are often driven using negative
reinforcements (Umstatter et al. 2015 ). A more promising approach is to make use
of natural animal behaviour and leading animals to create a self-managed flock,
leading to strategies that positively influence grazing distribution of livestock
(Revell et al. 2015 ). Current projects such as ‘Rangelands Self Herding’ or
‘Rangelands Self Shepherding’ (www.selfherding.com) will deliver a method that
allows livestock to develop new experiences that consequently shape their grazing
range and utilisation of water points. Since feeding behaviour is the result of a com-
plex interaction between reward systems and metabolic status (Ginane et al. 2015 ),
it seems possible that animals can learn about the full array of nutritional and ther-
mal environments in their range if the experience is rewarding. The capacity of
animals to learn new feeding behaviours and to adapt to changing circumstances,
and the differences in behaviour between experienced and naïve animals when
faced with a new feedstuff, shows that ruminants can learn to select one plant from
another.
Integrated and Innovative Livestock Production in Drylands