Species

80 Species

Linnaeus: Species as the Creator Made Them

Like Ray, the traditional logic was also taught to a poor Swedish student named Carl
Linnaeus.^137 Born in 1707, Linnaeus died in 1770, the most celebrated Swede of his
day. In 1761, he was knighted with the vernacular name Carl von Linné, and took the
Latinized name Carolus Linnaeus. Linnaeus was a botanist, and trained in Holland
where he published his rst botanical works.
Before Linnaeus, species were given all kinds of descriptive names, usually in
Latin, up to ten words or so long. Each author made up their own terms, and there
was no real convention for referring to species. On Linnaeus’ account, both species
and genera were xed, real and known by denitions. He apparently believed that
the genus was more real than the species, and he allowed late in life that species may
occasionally arise, but only within genera, through hybridization.
Some consider Linnaeus to be an essentialist regarding species.^138 This was due to
the fact that, unlike the medieval logical conception, for Linnaeus all species (at least
in botany, zoology, and mineralogy) were inmae species. He attempted to provide
a diagnostic denition for each species, although his practice and adopted motto “In
scientia naturali principia veritatis observationibus confirmari debent” (“in natural
science, the principles of truth ought to be conrmed by observation”)^139 suggests
that he was not rmly wedded to a priorism.
In the 1735 rst edition of the Systema Naturae^140 Linnaeus proposed a system of
ve ranks under the summum genus of the Empire of Nature (Imperium Naturae):^141

Methodical arrangement, which is the soul of science, indicates every natural body at

rst sight, so that it may be known by its own name; and this name points out whatever

the industry of the age has discovered concerning the body to which it belongs: Thus,

amidst the greatest apparent confusion of things, the order of Nature is seen to retain

the highest degree of exactness. This systematic arrangement is most conveniently

divided into branches, subordinate to each other, which have received various appel-

lations; thus,

Class, Order, Genus, Species, Variety.

Highest genus, Intermediate genus, Proximate genus, Species, Individual.

Province, District, Parish, Ward, Hamlet.

Legion, Battalion, Company, Mess, Soldier.

(^137) I am informed by Staffan Müller-Wille (pers. comm.) that Linnaeus, being from a relatively poor
district of Sweden, Småland, known (presumably by an Englishman) as the “Scotland of Sweden,”
was taught from old standard textbooks, and not out of the neo-Platonists early or late, as far as is
recorded [see also Goerke 1973, Frängsmyr 1983, Koerner 1999]. According to Hagberg 1952, 44ff,
Linnaeus was greatly inuenced by Aristotle’s Historia Animalium as a young student.
(^138) For example, Mayr 1969, Staeu 1971, Mayr 1982.
(^139) Staeu 1971.
(^140) Linné 1735, Li n né 1956, reprint of 10th edition, Linné 1758 , 7.
(^141) Li n né 1792.