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Species

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  • The Great Chain of Being

  • Peter Ramus and the Logic of Wholes and Parts

  • Noah’s Ark and the Creation of the Species Rank

  • Fuchs and Gesner: Images, Genus, and Species

  • Cesalpino and Bauhin: The Beginnings of Modern Taxonomy

  • The Universal Language Project

  • Locke and Leibniz on Real and Nominal Essences

  • Wilkins and Ray: Propagation from Seed

  • Nehemiah Grew: The Essence of Species

  • Tournefort: Names for Sensible Differences

  • Linnaeus: Species as the Creator Made Them

  • Buffon: Degeneration, Mules, and Individuals

  • Adanson: Many Characters Are Needed

  • Jussieu: Species as Simples

  • Charles Bonnet and the Ideal Morphologists

  • Immanuel Kant and the Continuity of Species

  • When Did Essentialism Begin?

  • Essentialism and Natural Systems

  • The Origins of Species Fixism

  • Bibliography

  • Chapter 4 The Nineteenth Century, a Period of Change

    • Nineteenth-Century Logic

    • Jean Baptiste de Lamarck: Unreal Species Change

    • Baron Cuvier: Fixed Forms and Catastrophes

    • James Prichard: Species Are Real, Variations Are Environmental

    • Louis Agassiz: The Last Fixist and the Lonely Platonist

    • James Dana: A Law of Creation

    • Richard Owen on the Unity of Types

    • Other Fixist Views

    • Charles Lyell: Species Are Fixed and Real

    • of Variation A-P de Candolle and Asa Gray: The Botanical View

    • Pre-Darwinian Evolutionary Views of Species

    • on Logic and Division Joseph Hooker, Thomas Wollaston, and George Bentham

    • A Summary View of the Early Nineteenth Century

    • Bibliography



  • Chapter 5 Darwin and the Darwinians

    • Darwin’s Development on Species

      • The Notebooks

      • D a r w i n’s P r e -Origin Correspondence

        • Darwin’s Published Comments on Species before the Origin Contents ix

        • On the Origin of Species, on Species

        • After the Origin

          • Interpretations of Darwin’s Idea of Species



        • Moritz Wagner, Pierre Trémaux, and Geographic Speciation

        • Wallace and Weismann’s Adaptationist Definition

        • Bibliography







  • Chapter 6 The Species Problem Arises

    • Karl Jordan Other Darwinians: Lankester, Romanes, Huxley, Poulton,

    • Non-Darwinian Ideas after Darwin

    • Lotsy and the Evolution of Species by Hybridization

    • Göte Turesson on Ecospecies and Agamospecies

    • German Thinkers: Isolation Is the Key

    • The Mendelians: Morgan and Sturtevant

    • Bibliography



  • Chapter 7 The Synthesis and Species

    • Ronald Fisher and Wild-Type Species

    • Theodosius Dobzhansky’s Definition

    • After Dobzhansky, the Beginnings of the Modern Debate

    • Ernst Mayr and the Biospecies Concept

    • Bibliography

    • Chapter 8 Reproductive Isolation Concepts SECTION II Modern Debates

      • Recognition Concepts

      • Genetic Concepts

      • Evolutionary Species Concepts

      • Lineages

      • Bibliography



    • Chapter 9 Phylogenetic Species Concepts ........................................................2

      • Hennigian, or Internodal, Species

      • Phylogenetic Taxon (Synapomorphic) Species

      • Autapomorphic Species....................................................................

      • Where Is the Taxon Level, or Rank?

      • Bibliography



    • Chapter 10 Other Species Concepts x Contents

      • Ecological Species Concepts

      • “Aberrant” Concepts

        • Agamospecies

        • Microbial Species

        • Nothospecies

        • Compilospecies

        • OTUs and Phenetics (Phenospecies)

        • Species Deniers: Pure “Nominalism,” or Eliminativism

        • Conventionalism: The Taxonomic Species Concept

        • Replacementism: LITUs (Least Inclusive Taxonomic Units)

        • Species Concepts in Paleontology (Paleospecies)

        • Chronospecies (Successional Species)



      • Bibliography





  • Chapter 11 Historical Summary and Conclusions

    • Bibliography

    • Chapter 12 Philosophy and Species: Introduction of the Species Concept

      • Literature on the Philosophy of Species

      • The Three Species Problems

        • The Grouping Problem

        • The Ranking Problem

        • The Commensurability Problem



      • Monism versus Pluralism

      • Bibliography



    • Chapter 13 The Development of the Philosophy of Species

      • The Philosophical Background

      • Individual, Cohesive, or Concrete

      • Clouds, Clades, and Grades: Natural Kinds or Natural Groups?

        • Taxa and Kind Terms

        • Natural Boundaries......................................................................

        • Classes in Biology

        • Indiscernibles...............................................................................



      • The “New” Essentialisms

        • Origin Essentialism

        • Intrinsic Biological Essentialism Contents xi

        • Homeostatic Property Cluster Kinds



      • Are There? Philosophically Speaking, How Many Species Concepts

      • Names and Nomenclature



    • Family Resemblance

      • Wittgenstein and Resemblance

        • A. As a Taxon Concept

        • B. As a Classification of Organisms

        • C. As a Measure of Conspecificity

        • Species? Do Family Resemblance Predicates Work for Biological



      • The Qua Problem

      • Asexual Microbial Species

        • What Are We Talking About?

        • The Problem of Cohesion

        • The Phylotype

        • Branching Random Walks

          • The Recombination Model

          • Concept) The Phylo-Phenetic Species Concept (Polyphasic Species



        • The Quasispecies Model



      • Species Definitions as Sociological Markers

      • Bibliography





  • Chapter 14 Species Realism................................................................................

    • Phenomenal Objects

    • Theory-Dependence and Derivation

    • What Are Species?

    • Pattern Recognition and Abduction

    • What Kind of Phenomena Are Species?

    • Are Species Forms of Life?

      • Consequences



    • Summary

    • Final Thoughts

    • Bibliography



  • Appendix A: Post-Linnaean Ranks

    • Bibliography



  • Appendix B: A Summary List of Species Definitions

    • Reproductive Isolation Conceptions (RISC)

    • Phylospecies (PSC)

    • Individual Conceptions xii Contents



        1. Agamospecies [ASC]





        1. Autapomorphic Species [APSC]





        1. Biospecies [BSC]*





        1. Cladospecies [CISC]





        1. Cohesion Species [CSC]





        1. Compilospecies [CoSC]





        1. Composite Species [CpSC]





        1. Differential Fitness Species [DFSC].....................................





        1. Ecospecies* [EcSC]





        1. Evolutionary Species [ESC]*................................................





        1. Evolutionary Significant Unit [ESU]





        1. Genealogical Concordance Species [GCC]





        1. General Lineage Concept [GLC]





        1. Genic Species [GeSC]...........................................................





        1. Genetic Species [GSC]*





        1. Genotypic Cluster [GCD]





        1. Hennigian Species [HSC]





        1. Internodal Species [ISC].......................................................





        1. Morphospecies [MSC]*





        1. Non-Dimensional Species [NDSC]





        1. Nothospecies [NSC]





        1. Phenospecies [PhSC]





        1. Phylogenetic Taxon Species [PTSC]





        1. Recognition Species [RSC]





        1. Reproductive Competition Species [RCC]





        1. Synapomorphic Species [SySC]





        1. Successional Species [SSC]





        1. Taxonomic Species [TSC]*





    • Replacement Conceptions



        1. Operational Taxonomic Unit [OTU]





        1. Least Inclusive Taxonomic Unit [LITU]





        1. Metapopulation





        1. Smallest Named and Registered Clade [SNaRC]





    • Bibliography



  • Index

  • Series List..............................................................................................................

  • Figure 1.1 Plato’s classification of angling. List of Figures

  • Figure 1.2 The Tree of Porphyry, compared with a cladogram.

  • Figure 3.1 Representations of the Great Chain.

  • Figure 3.2 The Tree of Ramus.

  • Figure 3.3 Bishop Wilkins’ Table of Animals on the Ark.

  • Figure 3.4 Fuch’s classifications.

  • Figure 3.5 Bonnet’s scale of nature.

  • Figure 3.6 Quinarian schemes.

  • Figure 4.1 L a m a r c k ’s “ t r e e .”

  • Figure 6.1 Ecospecies and coenospecies.

  • Figure 8.1 Lineages, redrawn from de Quierioz.

  • Figure 9.1 Phylogenetic species concepts.

  • Figure 9.2 Hennig’s view of systematic relationships.

  • Figure 13.1 Basic and derived conceptions of species.

  • Figure 13.2 The “carpet model” of asexual strains.

  • Figure 13.3 Pie and Weitz’ simulation of speciation.

  • Figure 13.4 Lateral transfer.

  • Figure 13.5 Quasispecies.

  • Figure 13.6 Tracking fitness peaks.

  • Figure 13.7 Contributions to species cohesion.

  • Figure 13.8 Asexual and sexual species and niche selection.

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