Overview of the Superfamily Pentatomoidea 5
Although all stages feed on plant material (often excluding the first instars), adults and/or fifth instars
cause the most injury, at least to soybeans. Often, the bug leaves a salivary sheath at the feeding site (see
discussion in McPherson and McPherson 2000, p. 3).
Many phytophagous insects, including aphids, sharpshooters, and weevils, possess symbiotic micro-
organisms; these symbionts play major roles in the lives of their hosts including provision of essential
nutrients, digestion of food materials, and protection of their hosts from parasites, pathogens, and/or
chemical pesticides. Among phytophagous insects, the Pentatomoidea exhibit extraordinary diversity in
their symbiotic system, including morphology of the symbiotic organ, mechanism of symbiont transmis-
sion, and host-symbiont interdependency. The current biological knowledge of the diverse stink bug-
microbe associations is reviewed in Chapter 14, highlighting the role of symbiotic microorganisms
in the evolution of pentatomoid species. Injury can be associated with microbial symbionts, which can
affect the taste of the crop (e.g., coffee, tea; see Chapter 10).
Compounding the detrimental effects of feeding is the ability to transmit plant pathogens. Pentatomids
are known or suspected to transmit a variety of disease-causing plant pathogens including the causal
pathogens for seed and boll rot, yeast spot, leaf spot and vein necrosis, stem canker, stigmatomycosis,
panicle and shoot blight, witches’ broom, hartrot, and marchitez. Affected crops range from pistachio
and oil palms to cotton, soybean, and cowpea. Organized by vector-borne diseases, the relationships
between various pentatomid species and fungi, bacteria, phytoplasmas, viruses, and trypanosomatids are
explored and reviewed in Chapter 13, including an examination of feeding, transmission, and vector-
pathogen interactions.
1.4 General Life History
Adults (sometime nymphs, rarely eggs) overwinter beneath leaf litter and other ground debris, usu-
ally remaining inactive. Some species [e.g., Murgantia histrionica (Hahn), Nezara viridula (L.)] can
become active during milder temperatures with feeding, copulation, and oviposition possible. In fact, N.
viridula will even feed when in reproductive diapause and, apparently, feeding during this time seems to
enhance overwintering survival (see McPherson and McPherson 2000). In some instances, when winters
are mild, species remain active throughout the winter. Examples include Bagrada hilaris (Burmeister)
(Taylor al. 2015) (Chapter 3) and Mecidea minor Ruckes (Bundy and McPherson 2011), which are found
in southern North America.
Diapause and related phenomena in the Pentatomidae and other pentatomoid families are reviewed in
Chapter 11. Using pentatomoids as examples, the consecutive stages of the complex dynamic process
of diapause (such as diapause preparation, induction, initiation, maintenance, termination, post-diapause
quiescence, and resumption of direct development) are described and discussed.
Adults emerge in the spring as temperatures rise and begin feeding and reproducing on grasses, herba-
ceous plants, shrubs, and trees, depending on the species. As noted above, they are attracted most often to
the developing seeds, fruits, or growing shoots. In fact, they will move from host to host as earlier hosts
pass peak suitability and that of later hosts approaches (McPherson and McPherson 2000). Reproduction
of the bugs begins shortly thereafter. For those few species that overwinter as eggs or nymphs, the pat-
terns of their life cycles in spring are somewhat different.
Precopulatory and copulatory behaviors have been reported for several species (e.g., McPherson
1982), and certain patterns are apparent. Mating usually begins with the male antennating various
parts of the female’s body but eventually concentrating on or near the tip of her abdomen. If she is
receptive, she will raise the tip of her abdomen for aedeagal insertion. If she is not receptive, the male
may replace or combine antennating with head butting and may attempt to lift her abdomen with his
head. If he is successful in stimulating the female to lift the tip of her abdomen, he will turn 180°,
elevate his abdomen, and attempt to insert his aedeagus. If he is successful in doing so, copulation may
last for several hours in this end-to-end position. Both adults may feed during this time, the female
sometimes dragging the male along. When the female is not receptive, she may not elevate her abdo-
men, or may kick at the male with her hind legs, or simply walk away (McPherson 1982, McPherson
and McPherson 2000).