Nezara viridula ( L .) 399
(Dallas), Leptocorisa chinensis Dallas, Stenotus rubrovittatus (Matsumura), and Trigonotylus caeles-
tialium (Kirkaldy)] that reproduce on weeds and subsequently invade rice fields to feed on rice grains,
causing pecky rice. These pests are polyphagous and multivoltine with high dispersal activity.
7.5.2 Europe
Damage caused by Nezara viridula to cultivated crops and ornamentals is documented in the native
Mediterranean range in Europe, although damage levels usually are considerably lower than in subtropi-
cal and tropical regions. Soybeans are attacked in central Italy, with mean seed weight loss (18%), altered
seed composition (reduced oil content), and reduced germination rate (up to 95% in susceptible strains)
as the most important effects (Colazza et al. 1986). Damage has also been reported in France (Le Page
1996). In field experiments with castor (Ricinus communis L.) in France and Italy, reduced seed yield
was observed (Conti et al. 1997).
Reports of damage in the introduced European range are scarce and often anecdotal. Simov et al.
(2012) mention preliminary evidence that, in 2007–2008, damage (chlorosis) was observed in Bulgaria
on tomato fruits, and Grozea et al. (2012) observed damage to tomatoes in Romania. Salisbury et al.
(2009) listed 26 observed host plants in the United Kingdom, with runner bean (Phaseolus coccineus L .)
as the most important. Most records were from late summer and autumn when harvesting was more
or less completed, so there was little if any damage. They concluded that, for the time being, Nezara
viridula is not a major pest in the country, but it could become problematic if populations increase and
start feeding earlier in the season. This statement can be extended to the European nonnative range.
7.5.3 North America
In America north of Mexico, Nezara viridula ranges from Virginia south to Florida and west to Texas,
California, and Washington (Figure 7.5; see Section 7.3.3); in the southern range, the species is an eco-
nomic pest of numerous crops, including, but not limited to, soybean, cowpea, southern pea, lima bean,
pecan, wheat, grain sorghum, corn, tomato, tobacco, and cotton (Table 7. 4; McPherson and McPherson
2000). Major row crops, such as soybean, corn, and cotton comprise a large majority of the cultivated
land area in the southern United States planted to annual crops, and these hosts support enormous popu-
lations of N. viridula each year. This bug has a high reproductive capacity and more generations per year
(Todd 1989) than Chinavia hilaris and Euschistus servus, the two other major species observed in the
complex of stink bugs important in the southern United States.
Due to this innate reproductive capacity and increased voltinism, Nezara viridula can make a large
negative impact in agriculture in the region. Stink bugs always have been present in southern crop pro-
duction systems, but the need for management has become much more apparent recently. This change
is thought to be driven by cultural changes in cotton production and evolving pest pressures. Prior to
boll weevil [Anthonomus grandis Boheman (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)] eradication and widespread
adoption of Bt-cotton, growers typically made 12–14 broad spectrum insecticide applications per year to
control this weevil and lepidopteran pests such as Heliothis virescens (F.) and Helicoverpa zea ( Bodd ie)
(King et al. 1987, Roof 1994). These numerous broad spectrum insecticide applications likely provided
coincidental control of stink bugs. At present, the boll weevil has been eradicated from all but a few
counties in Texas, and stacked gene transgenic Bt-cotton varieties provide outstanding control of virtu-
ally all serious caterpillar pests. Further, growers have developed an appreciation for the benefits of
preserving natural enemies and, therefore, make less than three insecticide applications per year. The
vast reduction in insecticide use has led to an increase in stink bug populations.
In field crops of the southern United States, stink bugs are considered primary pests requiring monitor-
ing and control tactics annually. Nationwide crop losses plus management costs attributed to stink bugs in
cotton exceeded $106 million (M) in 2005, but have moderated to $82.5 M in 2013 and $67.9 M in 2014
(Williams 2006, 2014, 2015). In corn and soybean, stink bugs are considered major pests, with Nezara
viridula leading in importance, particularly in the southernmost areas of the region. When Bt soybeans
are commercialized in North America, stink bugs will become the most prominent insect pests of the
crop requiring foliar insecticide control in the crop, nearly identical to the situation with cotton in the