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16.3.1.6.3 Entomopathogens and Nematodes
Several kinds of entomopathogens are reported from stink bugs, and some, especially certain fungi, have
been observed to cause significant epizootics in invasive species that can have a significant local impact,
either directly within crops or in overwintering sites (e.g., Seiter et al. 2014). Certain fungi can be specific
to just a very few species of Pentatomidae, such as Halyomorpha halys, and, because of this specificity,
they have been suggested for use as biological control agents (Sasaki et al. 2008).
Nematodes have been reported from several species of pentatomoids and have recently been reported
from the redbanded stink bug, Piezodorus guildinii ( Westwood), and the kudzu bug, Megacopta
cribraria, but they do not account for significant mortality. Entomopathogens have been reported from
several species. Trypansomatids recently have been identified in many Heteroptera and most apparently
are specific at both the family and genus levels, but the effects on their hosts are unclear (Kozminsky
et al. 2015). Sosa-Gomez (2006) reported species from Nezara viridula and P. guildinii in Brazil. Most
pentatomoids studied have been shown to harbor bacteria and other endosymbionts, but the degree of
mutualism in these associations is variable (e.g., Prado and Almeida 2009). Viruses have been recorded
from certain stink bugs including N. viridula in South Africa (Williamson and von Wechmar 1995).
16.3.1.6.4 Classical Biological Control
Several projects have targeted invasive pest pentatomoids. The most widespread have been those against
Nezara viridula (see Chapter 7 for more details). Parasitoids have been imported and released against
this pest nearly everywhere it has been found. The target areas have included Australia (Wilson 1960,
Coombs and Sands 2000), Brazil (Kobayashi and Cosenza 1987), South Africa (Van Den Berg and
Greenland 1996), the continental United States (Jones et al. 1983, 1995) and Hawaii (Davis 1964, 1966),
and several Pacific islands (Rao et al. 1971). The parasitoids imported most often have been the hyme-
nopterous egg parasitoid Trissolcus basalis (Wollaston) (Platygastridae) and the dipteran parasitoids
Trichopoda spp. (Tachnidae).
16.3.1.6.5 Augmentation Biological Control
There has been much research on basic technology required to economically mass produce and release nat-
ural enemies against certain invasive stink bugs, including development of efficient host rearing, selection
of the best candidate natural enemies, cold storage of host eggs and the use of pheromones. However, few
actual programs have been put in place, primarily due to the cost of implementation. An exception was the
Brazilian government-sponsored development and implementation program that utilized the egg parasitoid
Trissolcus basalis for both inoculative and inundative releases to manage pest stink bugs in commercial
soybean, including Nezara viridula and Piezodorus guildinii (Correa-Ferreira 1993, Correa-Ferreira and
Panizzi 1999). These programs disappeared with the advent of changing farming methods (Panizzi 2013).
Although natural epizootics of fungal pathogens have been observed in invasive pentatomoids (e.g., Seiter
et al. 2014), and shown promise for use against invasive species (e.g., Sosa-Gomez and Moscardi 1998,
Gouli et al. 2012), no applied use has been undertaken as of yet. Inoculative applications of fungal pathogens
might be effective in species such as Megacopta cribraria that overwinter gregariously in known habitats.
Sedighi et al. (2013) showed that overwintering Eurygaster integriceps Puton (Heteroptera: Scutelleridae)
were much more susceptible to mortality by Metarhizium anisopliae var. major (Metchnikoff) Sorokin
(Hypocreales: Clavicipitaceae) than were active populations collected in spring.
16.3.1.7 Integrated Pest Management
In 1996, IPM was defined by the United States Congress in the Food Quality Protection Act as “a
sustainable approach to managing pests by combining biological, chemical, cultural, mechanical, and
physical tools in a way that minimizes economic, health, and environmental risks” (Congress 1996). A
multitude of definitions for IPM can be found in the scientific literature (Bajwa and Kogan 2002), but
most recommend an approach that deals with a balance of control tactics to achieve a greater perma-
nency in pest management programs (Luckmann and Metcalf 1994).
For information on the history of IPM, see Section 16.2.2.