752 Invasive Stink Bugs and Related Species (Pentatomoidea)
and neonicotinoid insecticides (Cullen and Zalom 2007, Kamminga et al. 2009, Walgenbach and Schoof
2011, Wallingford et al. 2012, Bergh 2013, Leskey et al. 2013, Kuhar et al. 2014, Palumbo et al. 2015).
This reliance on insecticides was recently illustrated by Leskey et al. (2012b), who documented a four-
fold increase in pesticide use, primarily pyrethroids, over a 1-year period in mid-Atlantic apple and
peach orchards in response to increasing populations of Halyomorpha halys. Unfortunately, these groups
of chemicals can negatively impact biological control agents (Atanassov et al. 2003, Villanueva and
Walgenbach 2005) leading to secondary pest outbreaks, particularly in orchard crops (Hull and Starner
1983, Hardman et al. 1991, Hill and Foster 1998, Joseph et al. 2014).
16.3.1.7.1.1.2.3 Pheromone-Based Programs Recent advances in understanding the biology and
behavior of stink bugs in fruit and vegetable systems has led to progress in the development of monitor-
ing programs, more efficient pesticide-use strategies, and behaviorally based management approaches.
Identification of the Euschistus spp. aggregation pheromone, (2E,4Z)-decadienoate (Aldrich et al. 1991),
has been used as a lure in conjunction with pyramid traps to monitor populations of E. servus and
E. tristigmus in apple and peach orchards (Leskey and Hogmire 2005, Hogmire and Leskey 2006) and
E. conspersus in California processing tomatoes (Cullen and Zalom 2000). Although these pheromone
traps have been noted to attract many bugs to the vicinity of traps, only about 50% of E. servus attracted
to within 10 meters were captured (Leskey and Hogmire 2005). In addition, pheromone traps placed
adjacent to tomato fields for E. conspersus were female-biased and captures were poorly correlated with
populations in the field (Cullen and Zalom 2005). Nonetheless, this female bias and the fact that those
attracted to traps in the early season were reproductively active with mature eggs (Cullen and Zalom
2006), allowed trap captures to be used to set biofix for a developmental degree-day model to focus
sampling efforts for early instars (Cullen and Zalom 2000).
Rapid progress is being made on development of monitoring programs for Halyomorpha halys since
the discovery of its aggregation pheromone (Khrimian et al. 2014). The pheromone is similar to that
of Murgantia histrionica (Zahn et al. 2008), the two differing in that they consist of different isomers
of murgantiol. The addition of (2E,4E,6Z)-decatrienoate (commonly referred to as MDT) synergizes
H. halys’ response to its pheromone (Weber et al. 2014) and provides a lure that is attractive season-long
to adults and nymphs (Leskey et al. 2015). Ongoing research is using baited traps to establish treatment
thresholds in both orchard and vegetable crops.
Expanded knowledge of stink bug pheromones has provided opportunities for investigating
semiochemical-based management approaches. For example, Krupke et al. (2001) found that when deploy-
ing the Euschistus aggregation pheromone on mullein plants, a host of E. conspersus, a large number
of E. conspersus was quickly attracted to and retained on baited plants adjacent to an apple orchard.
Combining the aggregation pheromone with host plants could potentially be used as a trap crop. Using
this concept with Halyomorpha halys in apples, Morrison et al. (2015) were able to attract large numbers
of stink bugs to individuals trees baited with H. halys pheromone and MDT synergist, and then used
weekly pesticide sprays in baited trees to minimize stink bug damage in adjacent trees. These results
suggest that an attract-and-kill strategy may be a viable option for managing this pest with reduced
pesticide use.
16.3.1.7.1.1.2.4 Habitat Manipulation One of the first instances of habitat manipulation to man-
age stink bugs was in peaches in North Carolina (Killian and Meyer 1984). Early season herbicide appli-
cations targeting winter annual weeds on the orchard floor was demonstrated to reduce the incidence
of catfacing damage caused by stink bugs and Lygus bugs. This groundcover management strategy was
combined successfully with mating disruption for the oriental fruit moth [Grapholita molesta ( Busck)]
as a reduced-risk approach to manage the complex of insects in New Jersey peaches, resulting in reduced
stink bug populations as well as fewer organophosphate and carbamate insecticides compared to con-
ventionally managed orchards (Atanassov et al. 2002). This system was later compromised by increasing
populations of Halyomorpha halys in New Jersey. However, taking advantage of the border-arrestment
behavior of H. halys, Blaauw et al. (2014) demonstrated that limiting insecticide sprays to the periphery
of orchards reduced insecticide usage by 25–61% with equivalent or better control compared to whole
orchard sprays.