General Insect Management 753
Trap cropping has been a relatively little used practice for managing stink bugs in fruit or vegetable
crops. Mustard [Brassica juncea (L.) and B. kaber de Candolle] and rapeseed (B. napus L.) have been
evaluated as trap crops to reduce damage in collards and broccoli by Murgantia histrionica (Ludwig and
Kok 1998, Bender et al. 1999, Wallingford et al. 2013). Failure of the trap crop to hold large densities of
bugs and prevent them from moving to the cash crop has been an issue (Ludwig and Kok 1998), even
when the trap crop was treated with a systemic neonicotinoid (Wallingford et al. 2013). The failure of
soil-applied neonicotinoids likely was due to its short residual activity (Wallingford et al. 2012). Longer
residual insecticides or frequent spraying of trap crops may provide more promising results.
Expanding our knowledge of the area-wide ecology of stink bugs offers promise in devising more
large-scale farmscape approaches to managing stink bugs. Wooded areas and weedy borders are known
sources of many species of stink bugs that infest adjacent crops (Pease and Zalom 2010, Bakken et al.
2015). Strategically altering these landscapes can reduce stink bug populations and increase natural
enemy populations in nearby crops (Pease and Zalom 2010, Morandin et al. 2014).
16.3.1.7.1.1.2.5 Conclusions and Future Considerations The importance of stink bugs as
pests of fruit and vegetable crops has increased considerably during the past decade due to pesticide
regulatory actions and the establishment of new invasive species. Due to low damage tolerance levels on
these crops, current management programs rely heavily on chemical control, primarily pyrethroid and
neonicotinoid chemistry. These groups of insecticides negatively impact many beneficial arthropods and
have led to outbreaks of secondary pests – clearly not a sustainable strategy. In view of society’s aversion
to genetically modified fresh fruits and vegetables, future advances in stink bug pest management likely
will rely on a combination of behavioral, habitat manipulation, and chemical tactics. Greater efforts also
will be directed to enhancing the role of biological control in managing stink bugs in fruit and vegetable
systems, particularly classical biological control of invasive pests (Talamas et al. 2015).
16.3.1.7.2 Urban IPM
In general, some pentatomoids are considered either occasional invaders or only nuisance overwintering
pests in and around structures. Bugs overwintering in leaf-litter sites or crevices on trees or shrubs around
structures often are unnoticed by homeowners or property managers. Bugs that harbor in or on structures
generally are more of a concern. Until recently, the boxelder bug [Boisea trivittata (Say)], in the family
Rhopalidae, was far more common in structures than pentatomoids. On occasion, Brochymena spp. have
been reported to overwinter in dwellings (Ruckes 1946, Scudder 1979). Increasingly, as photoperiod
and temperatures decrease in the fall, overwintering aggregations of invasive Megacopta cribraria and
Halyomorpha halys in and on buildings have become more common (Nielsen et al. 2008, Eger et al.
2010, Suiter et al. 2010). These same bug species also cause problems in the spring when they move from
overwintering sites in structures as temperatures rise and daylight hours increase. In some situations,
large numbers of M. cribraria or H. halys entering structures can pose more of a problem beyond just
being a nuisance. Bugs harboring in sensitive areas around hospitals, nursing homes, dental offices, or
food preparation areas can cause contamination concerns. Bug defecation or hemolymph secretions can
stain fabric and wall coverings. Even physical injury may occur; secretions from M. cribraria have been
recorded to cause skin discoloration, a mild burning irritation (Ruberson et al. 2013), and eye irritation
(Seiter et al. 2013).
Management practices for many structure-invading pentatomoids, especially species that aggregate
in large numbers, have been conducted largely by building owners or contract pest management profes-
sionals (PMP). Until recently, numerous applications were made with broad exterior sprays of pyre-
throid insecticides (Nielsen et al. 2008, Seiter et al. 2013). Today, nearly all applications with pyrethroid
sprays on outdoor structures are limited to spot or crack-and-crevice treatments. This includes treat-
ments around windows, doors, and eaves. On the labels for most products, broad spray applications are
limited to building foundations, up to a maximum height of three feet. Outdoor applications to other
structural hard-scapes including driveways, patios, porches, sidewalks, also are limited to spot or crack-
and-crevice applications.
To control structurally invading pentatomoids, insecticide label restrictions have enhanced the need
for Urban IPM approaches to incorporate more non-chemical strategies and targeted chemical control