durations. The Black Spiny-tailed Iguana (Ctenosaura
similis), for example, has been reported to be capable
of dispersing seeds up to 500m. The rate of passage
through lizards’ digestive tracts is also comparatively
long (>4 days), which provides a greater chance for
seeds to be deposited at some distance from the parent
plant, where competition is reduced.What sort of floral traits appear to be
favoured by lizards? Because most lizards
are active for longer than insects, and have
higher energy requirements, there is some
evidence that sauriphily promotes the
evolution of plants that secrete a fairly
continuous supply of abundant nectar, at
high concentrations. Lizards (and birds,
which are, phylogenetically speaking, also reptiles),
have good colour vision especially in the red range of
the electromagnetic spectrum (unlike bees), and so red
flowers and nectar do appear to be associated with
many plants visited by lizard pollinators. Likewise,
fruits that are red in colour seem to have a particular
attraction for many lizards. Phylogenetic constraints
limit the ability of lizards to chew fruits with tougher
skins, and body size has been identified as a key trait
influencing frugivory. Larger lizards are increasingly
frugivorous; not only do they have greater bite force,
but importantly also a greater gape size, allowing them
to swallow fruits without chewing. Nevertheless, some
lizards can overcome morphological and functional
constraints by using behavioural means to consume
fruits that their jaws would otherwise preclude them
from eating. The cordylid Platysaurus capensis, a
relatively small reptile, feeds voraciously on figs when
they are temporarily available, despite being unable to
chew or engulf these fruits whole. An adult grasps a figin its jaws, and then turns its head to the side to press
the fruit against the ground, using the rocky ground to
split it open. Juveniles feed on figs broken open by
adults or birds, or by vigorously shaking their head
whilst grasping the fig in their jaws, which breaks it
into manageable pieces.Taxonomically, nectivory is dominated by geckos,
whereas frugivory is most common among skinks. As
can be expected, most lizards that consume nectar are
fairly small, averaging 126mm, and ranging from the
tiny Puerto Rican Bush Anole (Anolis pulchellus) with
an SVL of 35-43mm, to the Bonaire Island Whiptail
Lizard (Cnemidophorus murinus), which may reach
lengths of up to 500mm, and has been reported to
consume Aloe nectar. As outlined above, frugivorous
lizards tend to be larger, and the average body size of
species included in this review is 213mm. The single
frugivorous varanid, Gray’s Monitor (Varanus
olivaceus) is also the largest frugivorous lizard, with a
total length of up to 180cm, and consumes a great
diversity of fruits. However, there are some small-
bodied frugivores; the smallest being Duvaucel’s Gecko
(Hoplodactylus duvaucelii), with an SVL of as little as
40mm. Interestingly, the largest nectivorous lizard
species also consumes fruits, while the smallest
frugivorous species also consumes nectar.‘Some authors propose reptilianpollination of flowering plants to be anancient mutualism, PRECEDING evenPOLLINATION BY BEETLES.’The Bonaire Island Whiptail Lizard (Cnemidophorus
murinus) is the largest known nectivorous lizard.
Image by Jan Burletson.How long has this lizard-plant mutualism been going
on? Although instances of lizards as pollinators and
seed dispersers represent only fairly recent observa-
tions, and appear overall rare, there is evidence
suggesting this is a very ancient interaction, with
coprolites (fossilised faeces) from the Permian and
Jurassic periods showing evidence of reptiles browsing
on flowers. Some authors even propose reptilian
pollination to be one of the most ancient mutualisms
between flowering plants and animal pollination
vectors, preceding even pollination by beetles (the
main contenders as the first angiosperm pollinators).We can see that there are a significant number of
lizard species that ‘uncharacteristically’ feed on nectar
and fruit. Although generally underappreciated, some
are indispensable to the reproductive success of plant
species, while many others make a valuable
contribution to pollination and seed dispersal. Yet
there is fairly limited evidence confirming these
interactions: clearly this is a sweet subject, ripe for
future investigations!Further Reading:Barros Ribeiro, L., Gogliath, M., & Freire, E. M. X. (2008). Tropidurus
semitaeniatus (Squamata: Tropiduridae) as seed disperser of the
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Blázquez, M. C., & Rodríguez-Estrella, R. (2007). Microhabitat selec-
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hemilopha. Biotropica, 39(4), 496-501.
Bègue, J.-F., Sanchez, M., Micheneau, C., & Fournel, J. (2014). New
record of day geckos feeding on orchid nectar in Reunion Island: can
lizards pollinate orchid species? Herpetology Notes, 7, 689-692.
Castilla, A. M. (2000). Does passage time through the lizard Podarcis
lilfordi ’s guts affect germination performance in the plant Withania
frutescens? Acta Oecologica, 21(2), 119-124.
Clémencet, J., Aubert, C., Blottiere, D., & Sanchez, M. (2013). Klepto-
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from foraging honeybees on Réunion. Journal of Tropical Ecology, 29
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Dearing, M. D., & Schall, J. J. (1992). Testing models of optimal diet
assembly by the generalist herbivorous lizard Cnemidophorus muri-
nus. Ecology, 73(3), 845-858.
Deso, G., Probst, J. M., Sanchez, M., & Ineich, I. (2008). Phelsuma inex-
pectata Mertens, 1966 et Phelsuma borbonica Mertens, 1942
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Eifler, D. A. (1995). Patterns of plant visitation by nectar-feeding
lizards. Oecologia, 101(2), 228-233.
Elvers, I. (1977). Flower-visiting lizards on Madeira. Botaniska no-
tiser, 130, 231-234.
Figueira, J. E. C., Vasconcellos-Neto, J., Garcia, M. A., & de Souza, A. L.
T. (1994). Saurocory in Melocactus violaceus (Cactaceae). Biotropica,
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Font, E., & Ferrer, M. (1995). Gallotia galloti (Canary Islands lizard).
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nectar no longer a mystery: a visual signal for lizard pollinators.Biology Letters, 2(2), 165-168.
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Minnaar, I. A., Köhler, A., Purchase, C., & Nicolson, S. W. (2013). Col-
oured and Toxic Nectar: Feeding Choices of the Madagascar Giant
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Pérez-Mellado, V., & Corti, C. (1993). Dietary adaptations and herbi-
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Powell, R., Henderson, R. W., & John Jr, S. (2005). The Reptiles and
Amphibians of the Dutch Caribbean: St. Eustatius, Saba, and St.
Maarten: St. Eustatius national parks (STENAPA).
Ríos-López, N., Alicea-Ortíz, J. D., & Burgos-Aponte, E. (2016). Natu-
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occultus Williams and Rivero 1965 (Squamata: Dactyloidae): Nectar-
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Sazima, I., Sazima, C., & Sazima, M. (2005). Little dragons prefer
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Biota Neotropica, 5 (1), 185- 19214