reptiles becoming established varied across species. The most
likely introduced reptiles to become established successfully
were the American common snapping turtle (Chelydra
serpentina), with a 70% chance of establishing, the Asian
Burmese python (Python bivittatus, 59%), the South Amer-
ican yellow anaconda (Eunectes notaeus, 57%) and the African
puff adder (Bitis arietans, 56%).
These four species are examples of an existing motivation
to keep reptiles illegally despite the potential for serious conser-
vation consequences if they become established in Australia.
For example, the invasion of the Florida Everglades by Burmese
pythons is devastating this valuable ecosystem, with pythons
being identified as the cause of the decline of mammals. In its
native African range, puff adder bites are considered to be the
greatest cause of human deaths due to snake envenomation.
Considering the 28 illegally kept species altogether, our anal-
ysis revealed that 12 (42.9%) of these reptiles may become
established in Australia if they are released at least three times.
Collaboration and Information
The illegal trade in wildlife and the invasive spread of alien
species are textbook cases of a so-called “wicked” problem in
conservation biology, where social, ecological and economic
dimensions are entwined in a complex manner that makes
successful interventions difficult at best and almost impossible
to resolve at worst. As if their independent effects were not
sufficiently challenging, our research suggests a synergy between
the two threat processes, with the illegal wildlife trade being a
potential pathway for alien species.
The transnational nature of the illegal wildlife trade in alien
reptiles calls for multilateral cooperation between exporting and
recipient localities. Implementing such an approach requires
additional knowledge and research for improving our under-
standing about where the illegal reptiles originate in the trade
chain. In Australia we recommend more public awareness
campaigns to reduce the demand for alien pets and illegal wildlife.
This tangled web of science, policy, regulation and enforce-
ment requires collaboration, support and ingenuity to avoid
the establishment of more alien species in Australia.
Pablo García Díaz is a PhD candidate at The University of Adelaide’s Invasion Ecology Group.
Joshua Ross is a mathematician in the School of Mathematical Sciences at The University of
Adelaide. Andrew Woolnough works on invasive species management with the Victorian
Department of Economic Development, Jobs, Transport and Resources. Phill Cassey leads
the Invasion Ecology Group at The University of Adelaide's Environment Institute.MAY/JUNE 2017 | | 37Corn snakes (Pantherophis guttatus), an alien reptile, have often
been found at large in Australia. Glenn Bartolotti/CC BY-SA 4.0This red-eared slider turtle (Trachemys scripta elegans) was found in
Adelaide in 2016, despite being banned in Australia. Credit: Pablo García Díaz