68 | SCIENCE ILLUSTRATED
800 Years of Combating Smog
Up until the mid-1200s, the citizens of London mostly burned wood in their fireplaces, but as forests dwindled
and wood prices rose, coal became the fuel of choice. However, coal soon proved to have a visible drawback.In 1272, people in London complained
about smoke problems, and King
Edward I tried to solve the problem by
introducing the death penalty for the
burning of coal. However, the ban
proved impossible to comply with, and
the city remained shrouded in smoke.
Around 1300, a committee was set
up to solve the problems, and both
Richard II (1377-1399) and Henry V (1413-1422) tried to curb
air pollution by means of laws and regulations, however in
vain. In reality, the people of London had no other way of
keeping warm but to burn coal. In the 1600s, the sulphur
pollution was so severe that structures and works of art
began to fall apart, as pointed out by author John Evelyn andothers. In 1661, he wrote a letter – one of the earliest known
works concerning air pollution – titled “Fumifugium”, in
which he addressed the king and Parliament, describing the
damage caused by the smoke, which affected people and
structures alike.
In the letter, John Evelyn proposes that the people of
London burn wood instead of coal and that manufacturing
companies be located outside the city. He also suggests the
establishment of parks and the planting of trees in the city.
However, John Evelyn’s arguments did not help either –
the people of London continued their burning of coal, and
when the fuel-consuming industrialisation gained momentum
in the 1800s, the coal-burning increased even more. This
increased the emissions, which shrouded London and became
the city’s landmark symbol: the “pea soup” fog.In the 1900s, thousands of
tonnes of coal were carried
from mines in Wales,
Northern England, and
Scotland to London every day.
The coal kept the wheels of
industry turning and was
burned in millions of private
homes. The result was toxic
emissions of sulphur dioxide,
hydrochloric acid, etc.
HULTON DEUTSCH /GETTY IMAGESISTOCKsmog with hankerchiefs pressed against
their mouths and noses.
In the hospitals, it soon became clear
that the smog was particularly toxic. Doctor
Robert Waller, who was working at St.
Bartholomew’s Hospital, later told the BBC
that people did not realise the gravity of the
situation, until it became apparent there
was a shortage of coffins and flowers.
“There were no dead bodies in the
streets, so nobody really noticed, but the
death toll quadrupled during those days,” he
said. In the poor East End, the death toll was
nine times the normal rate.SEALED BENEATH THE FOG
The sticky fog was caused by an overlap of
several unfortunate weather conditions. A
cold winter meant Londoners had burnedKING EDWARD I.more coal than usual. At the start of
December, warmer air arrived from the
continent, but near the ground, it was still
cold. Since the air above the city was warmer
than the air near the ground, the fog settled
like a lid on the British capital.
The smoke from the chimneys of private
homes and factories was unable to rise, and
as it swirled, it reacted to form poisonous
compound. A simple fog became a fatal
smoke, which grew ever denser. Every day,
tonnes of smoke particles, carbon dioxide,
hydrochloric acid, fluorides, and sulphur
dioxide escaped chimneys to mix into the fog.FOUR MONTHS OF FOG
The citizens learned to live in a state of
emergency. Over generations, they had
become accustomed to Britain's capital citybeing shrouded in a veil fog and smoke.
Back in 1800, about one million people
were living in London, but by 1850, the city
held twice as many.
People from rural areas went to the city
to find jobs offered due to the industrial
revolution. And all private households
burned coal in their fireplaces.
The famous London fog became thicker
and remained for ever longer periods of
time. It also claimed lives, but the records
were not very thorough. However, city
statistics reveal that a smog incident in
1873 claimed 268 lives, and in 1879, the
city was shrouded in yellowish black fog for
no less than four weeks.
In 1900, the population had been more
than sextupled, and the black smoke from
fireplaces was accompanied by toxic smoke
from ever more companies. Smoke from
factories was emitted directly into the
foggy streets of London, particularly in the
East End, which is low-lying and where
private homes and large industrial
complexes were located side by side.PICTURESQUE POLLUTION
In the 1900s, smoke and fog had become an
part of London's cultural identity, and the
smog had long formed part of the world of
art as well. French impressionist Claude
Monet sought out his London subjects
when the smog was most severe, andCHEMISTRY POLLUTION