Therefore, combination of formats or integration of different test types can
neutralize disadvantages of a single test format or test type (Field 2013).
A combination of different test types can assess a more comprehensive construct.
Extent of topical knowledge.
Bachman (2010) states that topical knowledge or knowledge schemata can be
considered knowledge structures stored in the long-term memory.“Certain assess-
ment tasks that presuppose cultural or topical knowledge on the part of test takers may
be easier for those who have that knowledge and more difficult for those who do not”
(Bachman and Palmer 1996: 65). Therefore, test designers need to avoid bias con-
cerning topical knowledge on test takers. But for academic listening tests, to what
extent test-designers should avoid assessment tasks that presuppose cultural and
topical knowledge is quite tricky, for academic listening is always content-based. The
qualitative data in this research prove that schema has influenced test-takers’selection
of information for processing, their meaning and discourse construction. Even in
monitoring process, test-takers frequently employ their existing schema to check the
grammatical and semantic acceptability of the words to befilled in the gaps. For the
TEM 8 Mini-lecture tasks employed as research instruments in the current project, the
content and linguistic schemata test-takers resort to should be shared by all the
test-takers and hence the tasks are not considered biased. But if the lecture content is
obviously biased toward a certain group of test-takers who have prior knowledge of
the subject, the test would place others at a disadvantaged position. Therefore, test
developers must consider the issue of topical knowledge prudently in order not to
place test-takers who are not familiar with such knowledge at a disadvantage com-
pared to those who are familiar with the topic (Elliott and Wilson 2013: 227).
9.6 Recommendations for Pedagogy
Recommendations for academic listening instruction result mainly from analysis of
test-takers’cognitive behavior across differenct language competence levels during
the test-taking and retelling phases. Individual test-takers’ strategy choices in
aspects of SAIC—selection, association, integration and coherenceheavily
influence their performances in lecture comprehension. Therefore, recommendation
on academic lecture instruction must also be made upon these aspects.
9.6.1 Selective Attention
In academic listening instruction, students are usually encouraged to select infor-
mation supportive to theme building and key points; however, listening to build the
discourse structure of an academic lecture does not mean to memorize the headings
of key points only. Another key job is to grasp important details that help support
the main ideas. In the authentic lecture hall, students are not able to write down
9.5 Integration of Task Types 163