Health and Behaviour 93
stress but, even then, some cats will demonstrate clear physiological and behavioural
signs, whilst others, despite being no less stressed, will show very little outward
evidence.
The presence of disease conditions known to be associated with stress is also not
a reliable indicator that stress precipitated the disease. Not only are there other con-
tributory causes to these conditions, but also being unwell or in pain and discomfort
can in itself be a significant stressor.
Measurements of hormones released into the bloodstream during the stress
response, most notably cortisol, one of the major glucocorticoid hormones, can be
used in controlled research situations to identify stress in groups of animals. But
because of difficulties in correctly interpreting results owing to individual variation
in physiological response, plus normal variations owing to factors such as age, sex
and even time of day, such tests are of very limited use in assessing stress in individ-
uals. Another problem is that methods used to obtain samples may in themselves
involve some degree of stress and so influence results (Casey and Bradshaw, 2007).
An additional limitation is that any form of arousal, negative or positive, can raise
blood cortisol levels, which can make it a less reliable indicator of distress (Mills
et al., 2014).
Observable Signs of Stress in Cats
Physiological signs associated with sympathetic activation
● Panting.
● Salivation.
● Dilated pupils.
● Urination.
● Defecation.
● Anorexia.
● Piloerection.
Behavioural signs of emotional stress
The number and severity of signs exhibited will vary between individuals and in
chronic stress they are likely to be seen intermittently:
● Increased vigilance and sleep inhibition, especially when in the presence of a
stressor.
● Increased muscle tension, in preparation for ‘fight or flight’.
● Lowered head and body posture. The head may be positioned lower than the body.
● Feet remain in contact with the ground when the cat is resting, allowing for a
more rapid escape when necessary.
● Ears flattened sideways.
● Tail held close to body.
● Inhibition of normal behaviours - such as eating, grooming, elimination, explora-
tory behaviour and play (Rochlitz, 1999; Casey and Bradshaw, 2007).