Kitten to Cat 69
Olmstead, 1979, cited in Martin and Bateson, 1988). The variation in eye-opening
age seems to be due to several possible factors. Females generally tend to open their
eyes earlier than males and kittens that receive an increased amount of handling are
more likely to open their eyes sooner than those that are less well handled. There also
seems to be a paternal influence (Bradshaw et al., 2012). Other factors such as the
level of ambient light and the age of the mother also seem to be significant, with
kittens raised in reduced light conditions and those born to young mothers opening
their eyes sooner (Braastad and Heggelund, 1984).
Visual orienting and following normally develop at around 15–25 days, and
obstacle avoidance at around 25–35 days. Vision is usually sufficiently functional by
around 5 weeks of age but gradual improvements in visual acuity (clarity of vision)
continue until the kitten is around 10–16 weeks (Ikeda, 1979; Sireteanu, 1985;
Martin and Bateson, 1988).
A cat’s resting eye state, whether it is long- or short-sighted, seems to depend on
early visual experience. Indoor-raised cats are more likely to be short-sighted and
feral cats or those raised with ample outdoor access more likely to be long-sighted
(Hughes, 1972).
Motor development
Newborn kittens are not completely immobile, but during the first 2 weeks of life their
movements are uncoordinated, and they can only move forward using a slow and
ineffective paddling gait. The ability to return to an upright position, the body-righting
reflex, is present from birth although not fully developed for another month.
Forelimb coordination develops during the first 2 weeks after birth and hind-limb
coordination sometime within the following 2 weeks. Most kittens can stand by the
time they are 10 days old and are able to walk by 2–3 weeks of age but are still some-
what uncoordinated. It is not for at least another week or so that they are able to
move any significant distance. At around 5 weeks they can run for very short dis-
tances and move quite freely by 6–7 weeks of age, although the full complex balan-
cing skills seen in the adult cat do not yet become fully developed for another few
weeks (Martin and Bateson, 1988; Bradshaw et al., 2012).
Voluntary elimination develops at around 3–4 weeks, until which time the
mother needs to stimulate urination and defecation by licking the anogenital region.
The anogenital reflex, emptying the bladder and bowels in response to external stim-
ulation, disappears at around 4–5 weeks of age (Thor et al., 1989).
Behavioural development
Kittens demonstrate an ability to learn as soon as they are born. A preference for suck-
ling from a particular nipple develops very soon after birth and kittens can find the
same nipple, probably by following scent cues, every time that they feed (Raihani et al.,
2009). However, learning that can have the most influence on their later behaviour
begins at around 2 weeks of age when their developing senses allow them to become
more aware of their surroundings. This time signifies the beginning of the sensitive
period.