42 Section 2
welfare indicators is not there yet. To date the use of three groups of indi-
cators: economic, social and enabling environments (Henninger, 1998) has
been proposed:
- Economic indicators include measures of current consumption expend-
iture, income and wealth.
- Social indicators include access to adequate nutrition, energy, education
and health, and sanitation services.
- Enabling environments considers important issues such as vulnerability
and access to resources and markets.
The Marmot Indicators are another example of wider determinants,
also known as social determinants, that include a diverse range of social,
economic and environmental factors which impact on people’s health
(Marmot Indicators, 2017). Correlations with indicators related to animal
welfare or human well-being are not currently being considered, but could
add valuable information and help to improve interventions.
Much of this relates closely to working animals and their roles in sup-
porting humans. Nutritional indicators have also been developed, such as
caloric intake or chronic undernutrition (World Food Summit, undated).
Undertaking systematic comparisons of such indicators in communities
with animals that are well cared for and free of disease could help provide
underpinning evidence to a One Welfare, One Health approach.
The role of educational centres and schools can also help to underpin this
area by teaching the principles of animal welfare at early educational stages.
2.3 Natural Disasters and War
Natural disasters affect both human and animal welfare through accommo-
dation displacement and reduction in food, water or other environmental
resources. Environmental disasters in developing countries, including ir-
regular occupation in urban areas, as well as displacement of local commu-
nities in non-urban areas as part of development projects, can also affect
both human and animals living in those areas. Equally when there is war
both animals and humans can suffer.
Including animals within natural disasters and war interventions is key
from a number of different aspects:
- Some humans may be emotionally attached to animals. This could lead
to people endangering themselves to protect their animals, or failing to
follow public health security procedures, which may lead to a human
and animal welfare problem.
- Those dependent on livestock or working animals may be deprived of
their source of living and endanger themselves to protect their ‘assets’,
or fall into poverty as a result of damage or death to their animals.
- Welfare impacts on local species can have a deeper effect on the ecosystem