As the EU’s stands were closer to that of the group of developing countries, with
their concerted efforts, the USA and other umbrella countries^24 could not but accept
the“Berlin Mandate”and initiate the Protocol negotiations. However, the with-
drawal of the USA from the Protocol in 2001 had a very negative impact on
negotiations. Thus negotiation stands of umbrella countries such as Japan, Canada,
Australia, etc., also fell back. In order to save the Protocol, developing countries
intensified cooperation with the EU. The EU made a further compromise with the
umbrella countries with respect to theflexible mechanism, forest carbon sink,
financial aid and sanctions against breach, while after consultation with the EU,
China and the Group of 77 also agreed to make a non-principled compromise.^25
Ultimately, the international community reached theMarrakesh Agreement, making
way for the Protocol to be enforced.
Although China continued adopting“the Group of 77+China”mode of partic-
ipating in negotiations at this stage, China expressed its own concerns and stands
more and engaged in more substantive cooperation with the EU than during the
previous stage.
9.3.3 Stage of Post-Kyoto Agenda Negotiation in the Years
2005 – 2012: Interdependence
China’s carbon dioxide emissions sharply increased during the years 2001–2006.
The International Energy Agency predicted in 2006 that China would surpass the
USA to become the largest greenhouse gas emitter by 2009. After the USA
withdrew from the Protocol, China and the EU became the important forces for
continuing to promote the development of the global climate mechanism and were
interdependent in negotiations. This was mainly reflected in the following two
aspects.
First, cooperation in planning the post-Kyoto agenda gradually increased.
9.3.3.1 Basic Legal Status of the Convention and the Protocol
Both China and the EU believed that climate cooperation after 2012 should be
carried out under the framework of the Convention and the Protocol and took this as
the legal basis for concluding new agreements. The USA did not agree with this
stand and made a fresh start by successively launching multilateral mechanisms
covering major emitting countries, including the Carbon Sequestration Leadership
(^24) Umbrella countries refer to national interest groups developed as a result of similar stands on
global warming issues. They include the USA, Japan, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, etc. since
on the map, these countries are distributed in the shape of an“umbrella”.
(^25) Yan ( 2012 , pp. 158–159).
9 China-EU Relations in the Context of Global Climate Governance 179